Medea, a play by the Greek playwright Euripides, explores the
Greek-barbarian dichotomy through the character of Medea, a princess
from the "barbarian", or non-Greek, land of Colchis. Throughout the
play, it becomes evident to the reader that Medea is no ordinary woman
by Greek standards. Central to the whole plot is Medea's barbarian
origins and how they are related to her actions. In this paper, I am
attempting to answer questions such as how Medea behaves like a female,
how she acts heroically from a male point of view, why she killed her
children, if she could have achieved her goal without killing them, if
the murder was motivated by her barbarian origins, and how she deals
with the pain of killing her children.
As an introduction to the play, the status of women in Greek society
should be briefly discussed. In general, women had very few rights. In
the eyes of men, the main purposes of women in Greek society were to do
housework such as cooking and cleaning, and bear children. They could
not vote, own property, or choose a husband, and had to be represented
by men in all legal proceedings. In some ways, these Greek women were
almost like slaves. There is a definite relationship between this
subordination of women and what transpires in the play. Jason decides
that he wants to divorce Medea and marry the princess of Corinth,
casting Medea aside as if they had never been married. This sort of
activity was acceptable by Greek standards, and shows the subordinate
status of the woman, who had no say in any matter like this.
Even though some of Medea's actions were not typical of the average
Greek woman, she still had attitudes and emotions common among women.
For instance, Medea speaks out against women's status in society,
proclaiming that they have no choice of whom to marry, and that a man
can rid themselves of a woman to get another whenever he wants, but a
woman always has to "keep [her] eyes on one alone." (231-247) Though it
is improbable that women went around openly saying things of this
nature, it is likely that this attitude was shared by most or all Greek
women. Later in the play, Medea debates with herself over whether or
not to kill her children: "Poor heart, let them go, have pity upon the
children." (1057). This shows Medea's motherly instincts in that she
cares about her children. She struggles to decide if she can accomplish
her goal of revenge against Jason without killing her children because
she cares for them and knows they had no part in what their father did.
Unfortunately, Medea's desire to exact revenge on Jason is greater than
her love for her children, and at the end of the play she kills them.
Medea was also a faithful wife to Jason. She talks about how she helped
Jason in his quest for the Golden Fleece, then helped him escape, even
killing her own brother. (476-483). The fact that she was willing to
betray her own family to be with Jason shows her loyalty to him.
Therefore, her anger at Jason over him divorcing her is understandable.
On the other hand, Medea shows some heroic qualities that were not
common among Greek women. For example, Medea is willing to kill her own
brother to be with Jason. In classical Greece, women and killing were
probably not commonly linked. When she kills her brother, she shows
that she is willing to do what is necessary to "get the job done", in
this case, to be with Jason. Secondly, she shows the courage to stand
up to Jason. She believes that she has been cheated and betrayed by
him. By planning ways to get back at him for cheating on her, she is
standing up for what she believes, which in this case is that she was
wronged by Jason, but in a larger sense, she is speaking out against the
inferior status of women, which effectively allows Jason to discard
Medea at will. Third, she shows that she is clever and resourceful.
Rather than use physical force to accomplish her plans, she uses her
mind instead: "it is best to...make away with them by poison."
(384-385) While physical strength can be considered a heroic quality,
cleverness can be as well. She does in fact poison the princess and the
king of Corinth; interestingly, however, she does not poison them
directly. "I will send the children with gifts...to the bride...and if
she wears them upon her skin...she will die." (784-788) This shows her
cleverness because she is trying to keep from being linked to the crime,
though everyone is able to figure out that she was responsible anyway.
In a way, though, she is almost anti-heroic because she is not doing the
"dirty work" herself, which makes her appear somewhat cowardly.
Finally, there is the revenge factor. Many times heroes were out for
revenge against someone who did them or a friend wrong, and in this case
Medea is no exception, since she wants to have revenge against Jason for
divorcing her without just cause.
There are two main reasons why Medea decides to kill her children. The
first, and more obvious one, is that she feels that it is a perfect way
to complement the death of the princess in getting revenge on Jason.
When she tells the chorus of the plans to kill the children, they wonder
if she has the heart to kill her children, to which she replies, "[y]es,
for this is the best way to wound my husband." (817). This shows that
she believes that by killing her children, she will basically ruin
Jason's life, effectively getting her revenge. The second reason for
Medea killing her children has nothing to do with revenge. If she left
her children with Jason, they would be living in a society that would
look down upon them since they have partly barbarian origins. She did
not want her children to have to suffer through that. Also, if her
children are mocked for being outsiders, then this reflects badly on
Medea, and she said that she does not want to give her enemies any
reason to laugh at her. (781-782) Since she does not want to leave her
children with Jason, they really have no place else to where they could
go, being barbarians in a Greek city: "[m]y children, there is none who
can give them safety." (793) For these two reasons, Medea decides that
killing her children is the best way to accomplish her plan: getting
revenge and keeping her children away from Jason.
Whether or not Medea could have accomplished her goal without killing
her children is debatable. On one hand, if we look at Medea's objective
only as seeking revenge against Jason, then she could have accomplished
that without killing her children. Killing the princess, Jason's new
wife, would cause enough grief for Jason so that her goal would be
accomplished. We can infer that the death of Jason's wife would be more
damaging to him than the deaths of his children because Jason was going
to let Medea take the children with her into exile and did not try to
keep them for himself. Therefore, once the princess was dead, killing
the children, while it causes additional grief for Jason, really is not
necessary. Even though Medea does not seem to believe it, killing her
children probably causes more pain for her than Jason. She just does
not see it because she is so bent on revenge against Jason. On the
other hand, if we define Medea's objective in two parts, one being
revenge, and the other to keep the children away, then it is possible
that she had to kill her children. As for the revenge part, it was not
necessary that she kill her children for the reasons just discussed.
However, she may have needed to kill them to keep Jason from getting
them. If Jason decided he wanted his children, there is not much Medea
could do about it, other than kill them. Also, it is possible that she
did not want to take them with her into exile because they could make it
more difficult for her to reach Athens. For whatever the reason,
however, it is probable that she needed to kill her children to carry
out her plan, since she accomplished two different goals through their
deaths.
The murder of Medea's children is certainly caused in part by her
barbarian origins. The main reason that Jason decides to divorce Medea
to marry the princess is that he will have a higher status and more
material wealth being married to the king's daughter. (553-554) In
other words, Jason believes that Medea's barbarian origins are a burden
to him, because there is a stigma attached to that. In his mind, having
the chance to be rich outweighs the love of a barbarian wife. Medea's
barbarian status is a burden to herself as well. Once separated from
Jason, she becomes an outsider with no place to go, because the
barbarians were not thought too highly of in Greek society. Had Medea
not been a barbarian, it is likely that Jason would not have divorced
her, and therefore, she would not have had to kill her children. But
since she is a barbarian, this sets in motion the events of the play,
and in her mind the best course of action is to kill her children. Just
because she is non-Greek does not necessarily mean that her way of
thinking would be different from the Greeks; in other words, her way of
thinking did not necessarily cause her to kill her children.
Medea deals with the pain that the deaths of her children cause her
quite well. She does this by convincing herself that her revenge
against her husband was worth the price of her children's death. When
asked about killing her children, she replies, "So it must be. No
compromise is possible." (819) This shows that she is bent on revenge,
and that she is justifying their deaths to get her revenge. However,
she does struggle with her decision to kill them. She is sad that she
must take their lives, but also tells herself that it is in their best
interests, as evidenced by what she says to her children: "I wish you
happiness, but not in this world." (1073) She does not seem to have a
problem with killing her children once it comes time to actually carry
out the act. But her motherly instincts will not allow her to totally
abandon her children after they are dead, as she decides to hold a
yearly feast and sacrifice at their burial site. (1383-1384) But in
the end, we can see that she dealt with the pain surprisingly well.
Two main themes are present in Medea: Medea's barbarian origins, and
her desire for revenge against Jason. Her barbarian status is really
what starts the actions of the play. It is what makes her a less
desirable wife to Jason than the princess, and causes him to leave her.
This then leads to her thoughts of revenge against Jason, and her
decision to kill her children as a way to exact that revenge. As far as
revenge goes, Medea is heroic in that she is standing up against an evil
done to her. Throughout most of the play, she spends her time plotting
her revenge against Jason, waiting until the right moment to unleash her
plan. She uses her cleverness to trick Jason and the others into
believing that she was not upset with him. In the end, we can see that
Medea's barbarian origins were a major factor in the play, and that
Medea was no ordinary woman in Greek terms.
Thursday, October 18, 2012
justice in the orestia
Aeschylus is primarily concerned with the nature of justice. In the trilogy The Oresteia, the Akhaians evolve from an older, more primitive autocratic form of justice, to a new concept of civil justice devised by Athena. He confronts the contrast between the old and new orders, the lives of the members of the House of Atreus, and the serious moral questions that Orestes' crime presents.
The case against Orestes is strong. The son admits to striking down his mother, in violation of the sacred tenant of kinship. "But I came back, my years of exile weathered-killed the one who bore me, I won't deny it, killed her in revenge." (Eumenides lines 476-478) This shows that Orestes was fully aware of the act he was committing, that he willfully committed it, and that he must suffer for it. The bond between mother and child was broken when Orestes murdered Clytaemnestra. Marriage, arguably, is a tenant of Zeus and the Olympians. In the old order of things, family is by blood only. A husband and wife have no blood relation, yet the son is of the same blood as his parents. The Furies right to vengeance cannot be dismissed.
Clytaemnestra is one who upheld the laws of the Furies. Agamemnon's murder of Iphegenia at Aulis was pure outrage. "Yes he had the heart to sacrifice his daughter , to bless the war..." (Agamemnon lines 222-223) Agamemnon killed his own blood relation in order to sail for Troy. This too, is a terrible crime, seemingly of the same weight as Orestes' act. Clytaemnestra believed she was justified in avenging her daughter, because her husband violated a sacred tenant of the old gods. "Here is Agamemnon, my husband made a corpse by this right hand-a masterpiece of justice. Done is done." (Agamemnon lines 1429-1431) This shows a clear morality behind Clytaemnestra's motives. She appears to have justification for her actions. The curse on the House of Atreus is fulfilled. In the last lines of Agamemnon the chorus foreshadows Orestes' return. Clytaemnestra responds by saying to her new husband, "We will set the house in order once for all." (Agamemnon lines 1708) The chorus's purpose for suggesting Orestes's return is to show that the house is not yet cleansed of the curse..
Like his mother, Orestes possesses what he believes to be a just motive for revenge. Unlike his mother, however, Orestes has reservations about killing. He does not wish to strike down his mother, but realises that he must. The defense of Orestes is rooted in the fact that Apollo ordered him to do so. Orestes trusts Apollo's guidance at his trial. "Apollo will never fail me, no, his tremendous power, his oracle charges me to see this trial through." (Libation Bearers lines 273-275) Orestes believes that he is justified in avenging his god-honoured father, who was so brutally murdered by his mother. This cycle of blood in the House of Atreus appears as if it will continue forever.
This cycle of violence leads the gods to search for a different solution. If the society of Greece is to progress to a higher civilisation, some other way must be found to resolve the conflict of moral questions. The ancient idea of vengeance doesn't properly apply here because both Clytaemnestra and Orestes acted in support of legitimate definitions of justice. The ancient gods support Clytaemnestra and her actions, while Zeus, by means of Apollo, supports Orestes. The clash between deities sets the stage for the emergence of a new form of justice-civil justice.
The ancient law of retaliation, which states that blood must be paid for with more blood, is enforced by the Furies. This task was given to them by Destiny at the dawn of time. "...you'll give me blood for blood, you must!... Wither you alive, drag you down and there you pay, agony for mother-killing agony!" (Eumenides lines 262, 265) Their concept of justice is one where the law of retaliation is applied absolutely. They have no notion of compassion or understanding. They uphold the belief that regardless of circumstances, Orestes must be made to pay for his crime of matricide. The Furies represent something older and more sacred which Apollo and Zeus do not respect.
Athena's establishment of the court to try manslaughter is significant, because it provides a place for the citizens to decide about what moral elements will be upheld in the Polis. The Eumenides is the battleground for the two competing moralities. The furies invoke their rights as defenders of blood, and it is up to Orestes and Apollo to convince the jury that the son was just in his actions. The jury is expected to believe that Apollo's oracle is true-that Zeus himself ordained the act. The Chorus asks the question, "Can a son spill his mother's blood on the ground, then settle into his father's halls in Argos?" (Eumenides lines 661-662) A good answer to this question might have been to hypothetically reverse the question on Clytaemnestra-How quickly she settled into life after she cut down her lord. But, Apollo opts for the weaker, more arbitrary defense. His speech about how the father is the only true parent makes little sense. Even the all-male jury would take some offense to this argument.
Athena, however, initiates the ideal that the law be concerned not only with the forms of justice, as the Furies are passionate about, but with justice itself. The jurors must ask themselves whether Orestes was justified in committing matricide. Circumstances, motives and consequences must be taken into account at trial. Do they consider marriage as sacred as the law of kin? Is there a sacred bond between mother and son? Or only between father and son? Does Zeus's will override the ancient laws of the Furies? These are complicated moral question that Athena asks the mortal jury to grapple with. Even Athena believes the issue too important for her to judge solely. "...by all rights not even I should decide a case of murder-murder whets passions." (Eumenides lines 486-487) She realises that if she were to mediate, the curse will never end. Perhaps she is suggesting that mortals must decide when the gods disagree. This is an important development because it shows the journey from the retributive justice in Agamemnon to the deliberative justice of Athena's tribunal.
The ultimate decision is ambiguous. The vote is tied for a reason-neither side puts forth a well argued analysis of Orestes' case. There is justice on both sides, and the jury realises this. Orestes is acquitted by Athena on arbitrary terms. She casts her vote for Orestes because she supports her father's Order, believing that there is a need for the establishment of a higher reasoning. One could also argue that she voted for acquittal because she is the god of war. She supported Agamemnon, the General, throughout the Trojan war and thus wished to favour his memory. She knows little of women, despite being female herself.
Having settled the trial, Athena must also settle the anger of the Furies. She tactfully invites them to join Zues's Order-something that is necessary if peace is to be made between the generations of immortals. She does not completely refute them, nor deny them their place in the world. "I will bear with your anger. You are older. The years have taught you more than I can know. But Zeus, I think, gave me some insight, too, that has its merits." (Eumenides lines 855-859) She asks the Furies to accept her offer of making their home Athens, and to endure as the upholders of the sacred bond of marriage. They accept her offer because it is wise and just. It transforms the Furies from destructive forces to beneficial ones.
This resolution ends the curse on the House of Atreus, as well as many of the differences between the old and new gods. Orestes is free to claim his city and the Furies have been given a place in Zeus' Order. The latter seems to be the emphasis of the trilogy because of the arbitrary decision on Orestes' case. The best possible justice has been realised in the decision. The new Apollonian concept of justice represents a higher level of understanding and civilisation. It may be argued that Clytaemnestra's death was left unavenged; that justice escaped her. Orestes' right to avenge the dishonorable death of his father was upheld by the court. The tribunal deemed Clytaemnestra's actions wrong and Orestes' just. With the establishment of Athena's judicial system, there is now a method to prosecute people like Clytaemnestra, such that the ancient blood-lust of vengeance doesn't take rule over issues of right and wrong.
The case against Orestes is strong. The son admits to striking down his mother, in violation of the sacred tenant of kinship. "But I came back, my years of exile weathered-killed the one who bore me, I won't deny it, killed her in revenge." (Eumenides lines 476-478) This shows that Orestes was fully aware of the act he was committing, that he willfully committed it, and that he must suffer for it. The bond between mother and child was broken when Orestes murdered Clytaemnestra. Marriage, arguably, is a tenant of Zeus and the Olympians. In the old order of things, family is by blood only. A husband and wife have no blood relation, yet the son is of the same blood as his parents. The Furies right to vengeance cannot be dismissed.
Clytaemnestra is one who upheld the laws of the Furies. Agamemnon's murder of Iphegenia at Aulis was pure outrage. "Yes he had the heart to sacrifice his daughter , to bless the war..." (Agamemnon lines 222-223) Agamemnon killed his own blood relation in order to sail for Troy. This too, is a terrible crime, seemingly of the same weight as Orestes' act. Clytaemnestra believed she was justified in avenging her daughter, because her husband violated a sacred tenant of the old gods. "Here is Agamemnon, my husband made a corpse by this right hand-a masterpiece of justice. Done is done." (Agamemnon lines 1429-1431) This shows a clear morality behind Clytaemnestra's motives. She appears to have justification for her actions. The curse on the House of Atreus is fulfilled. In the last lines of Agamemnon the chorus foreshadows Orestes' return. Clytaemnestra responds by saying to her new husband, "We will set the house in order once for all." (Agamemnon lines 1708) The chorus's purpose for suggesting Orestes's return is to show that the house is not yet cleansed of the curse..
Like his mother, Orestes possesses what he believes to be a just motive for revenge. Unlike his mother, however, Orestes has reservations about killing. He does not wish to strike down his mother, but realises that he must. The defense of Orestes is rooted in the fact that Apollo ordered him to do so. Orestes trusts Apollo's guidance at his trial. "Apollo will never fail me, no, his tremendous power, his oracle charges me to see this trial through." (Libation Bearers lines 273-275) Orestes believes that he is justified in avenging his god-honoured father, who was so brutally murdered by his mother. This cycle of blood in the House of Atreus appears as if it will continue forever.
This cycle of violence leads the gods to search for a different solution. If the society of Greece is to progress to a higher civilisation, some other way must be found to resolve the conflict of moral questions. The ancient idea of vengeance doesn't properly apply here because both Clytaemnestra and Orestes acted in support of legitimate definitions of justice. The ancient gods support Clytaemnestra and her actions, while Zeus, by means of Apollo, supports Orestes. The clash between deities sets the stage for the emergence of a new form of justice-civil justice.
The ancient law of retaliation, which states that blood must be paid for with more blood, is enforced by the Furies. This task was given to them by Destiny at the dawn of time. "...you'll give me blood for blood, you must!... Wither you alive, drag you down and there you pay, agony for mother-killing agony!" (Eumenides lines 262, 265) Their concept of justice is one where the law of retaliation is applied absolutely. They have no notion of compassion or understanding. They uphold the belief that regardless of circumstances, Orestes must be made to pay for his crime of matricide. The Furies represent something older and more sacred which Apollo and Zeus do not respect.
Athena's establishment of the court to try manslaughter is significant, because it provides a place for the citizens to decide about what moral elements will be upheld in the Polis. The Eumenides is the battleground for the two competing moralities. The furies invoke their rights as defenders of blood, and it is up to Orestes and Apollo to convince the jury that the son was just in his actions. The jury is expected to believe that Apollo's oracle is true-that Zeus himself ordained the act. The Chorus asks the question, "Can a son spill his mother's blood on the ground, then settle into his father's halls in Argos?" (Eumenides lines 661-662) A good answer to this question might have been to hypothetically reverse the question on Clytaemnestra-How quickly she settled into life after she cut down her lord. But, Apollo opts for the weaker, more arbitrary defense. His speech about how the father is the only true parent makes little sense. Even the all-male jury would take some offense to this argument.
Athena, however, initiates the ideal that the law be concerned not only with the forms of justice, as the Furies are passionate about, but with justice itself. The jurors must ask themselves whether Orestes was justified in committing matricide. Circumstances, motives and consequences must be taken into account at trial. Do they consider marriage as sacred as the law of kin? Is there a sacred bond between mother and son? Or only between father and son? Does Zeus's will override the ancient laws of the Furies? These are complicated moral question that Athena asks the mortal jury to grapple with. Even Athena believes the issue too important for her to judge solely. "...by all rights not even I should decide a case of murder-murder whets passions." (Eumenides lines 486-487) She realises that if she were to mediate, the curse will never end. Perhaps she is suggesting that mortals must decide when the gods disagree. This is an important development because it shows the journey from the retributive justice in Agamemnon to the deliberative justice of Athena's tribunal.
The ultimate decision is ambiguous. The vote is tied for a reason-neither side puts forth a well argued analysis of Orestes' case. There is justice on both sides, and the jury realises this. Orestes is acquitted by Athena on arbitrary terms. She casts her vote for Orestes because she supports her father's Order, believing that there is a need for the establishment of a higher reasoning. One could also argue that she voted for acquittal because she is the god of war. She supported Agamemnon, the General, throughout the Trojan war and thus wished to favour his memory. She knows little of women, despite being female herself.
Having settled the trial, Athena must also settle the anger of the Furies. She tactfully invites them to join Zues's Order-something that is necessary if peace is to be made between the generations of immortals. She does not completely refute them, nor deny them their place in the world. "I will bear with your anger. You are older. The years have taught you more than I can know. But Zeus, I think, gave me some insight, too, that has its merits." (Eumenides lines 855-859) She asks the Furies to accept her offer of making their home Athens, and to endure as the upholders of the sacred bond of marriage. They accept her offer because it is wise and just. It transforms the Furies from destructive forces to beneficial ones.
This resolution ends the curse on the House of Atreus, as well as many of the differences between the old and new gods. Orestes is free to claim his city and the Furies have been given a place in Zeus' Order. The latter seems to be the emphasis of the trilogy because of the arbitrary decision on Orestes' case. The best possible justice has been realised in the decision. The new Apollonian concept of justice represents a higher level of understanding and civilisation. It may be argued that Clytaemnestra's death was left unavenged; that justice escaped her. Orestes' right to avenge the dishonorable death of his father was upheld by the court. The tribunal deemed Clytaemnestra's actions wrong and Orestes' just. With the establishment of Athena's judicial system, there is now a method to prosecute people like Clytaemnestra, such that the ancient blood-lust of vengeance doesn't take rule over issues of right and wrong.
Hipporcratic oath and Kevorkian
More than 2000 years ago Hippocrates who was known as the founder of medicine established a code of behavior for medical students. It is still recited by students about to enter medical practice today.
The Hippocratic Oath addresses three major points. The first of these states that no deadly medicine should be given to anyone by diagnosis or if asked. The emphasizes the belief that no sician is to aid in the death of another person. Another major point in the Hippocratic Oath is that any houses entered by a physician should be entered for the benefit of the sick only with no acts of mischief or corruption taking place. Finally the oath states that anything seen or heard in connection or not in connection with a physicians practice should not be divulged. this means that all information given to a physician during practice or not during practice should be kept secret.
One major point of the Hippocratic Oath is addressed in the today's news. Dr. Jack Kevorkian who repeatedly ignores the section of the oath dealing with the harming or killing of an individual. His assistance in the suicide of 39 persons, breaks the very backbone of the Hippocratic Oath.
Although Hippocrates Oath was written a long time ago, its major points and principles still should be followed by physicians today. Such principles enforce doctors to perform in a way that follows the basic guidelines of modern society
As you can see by this essay the Hippocratic Oath Although 2,000 years old still should be abided by today. Its major points and principles outline the way medical physicians should present themselves. Dr. Jack Kevorkian's actions violate the Hippocratic Oath and all that is stated within it.
The Hippocratic Oath addresses three major points. The first of these states that no deadly medicine should be given to anyone by diagnosis or if asked. The emphasizes the belief that no sician is to aid in the death of another person. Another major point in the Hippocratic Oath is that any houses entered by a physician should be entered for the benefit of the sick only with no acts of mischief or corruption taking place. Finally the oath states that anything seen or heard in connection or not in connection with a physicians practice should not be divulged. this means that all information given to a physician during practice or not during practice should be kept secret.
One major point of the Hippocratic Oath is addressed in the today's news. Dr. Jack Kevorkian who repeatedly ignores the section of the oath dealing with the harming or killing of an individual. His assistance in the suicide of 39 persons, breaks the very backbone of the Hippocratic Oath.
Although Hippocrates Oath was written a long time ago, its major points and principles still should be followed by physicians today. Such principles enforce doctors to perform in a way that follows the basic guidelines of modern society
As you can see by this essay the Hippocratic Oath Although 2,000 years old still should be abided by today. Its major points and principles outline the way medical physicians should present themselves. Dr. Jack Kevorkian's actions violate the Hippocratic Oath and all that is stated within it.
Heros of Greece
In ancient Greek times heroism was much different than it is now. Today, all you have to do to become a hero most of the time is rich, after you do this the media will take it from there. But in the time of the Trojans it took much more, thing's that Achilles thankfully, was very good at or things he thought was important. Achilles was not only a hero physically, but was more importantly, a hero for the Achian army's morale, also his chivalric properties were important with his being a hero.
Physically Achilles is superior to anyone that I have read of so far in the Iliad, other than Zeus and a few other gods. Even the best of the Trojan warriors and fighters cannot compare to Achilles' fighting skill or his strength.
Morale is something that the Achians are truly suffering from in the end of book six and into book nine. Something that the Achians need and Achilles provides when he is with the A.chians is a sort of a "father figure" if you would, a figure to look up to and to follow. Another way Achilles aggrandized the Achians morale was him just being on their side and not on the Trojan team.
Chivalry was a trait that Achilles saw to be very important, to strive hard to perform well in. He showed a few instances were he could have conducted himself differently but made a gallant decision. This includes when Agamemnon took away Briesies, Achilles' war prize. Achilles could have become very angry and could have killed him very easily but he refrained, he spared the Achians leader and left so no shame could soil his name.
Compared to most hero's in ancient Greece Achilles was a monster of a hero, for he showed multiple ways a hero can be the best hero, he also showed exactly how good a hero can be through his physical properties, his influence he had on the Achians army morale, and his desire to be the best warrior and hero he could be through his chivalrous acts.
Physically Achilles is superior to anyone that I have read of so far in the Iliad, other than Zeus and a few other gods. Even the best of the Trojan warriors and fighters cannot compare to Achilles' fighting skill or his strength.
Morale is something that the Achians are truly suffering from in the end of book six and into book nine. Something that the Achians need and Achilles provides when he is with the A.chians is a sort of a "father figure" if you would, a figure to look up to and to follow. Another way Achilles aggrandized the Achians morale was him just being on their side and not on the Trojan team.
Chivalry was a trait that Achilles saw to be very important, to strive hard to perform well in. He showed a few instances were he could have conducted himself differently but made a gallant decision. This includes when Agamemnon took away Briesies, Achilles' war prize. Achilles could have become very angry and could have killed him very easily but he refrained, he spared the Achians leader and left so no shame could soil his name.
Compared to most hero's in ancient Greece Achilles was a monster of a hero, for he showed multiple ways a hero can be the best hero, he also showed exactly how good a hero can be through his physical properties, his influence he had on the Achians army morale, and his desire to be the best warrior and hero he could be through his chivalrous acts.
Hercules
Hercules
Hercules, in Greek mythology, was a hero known for his strength and courage and for his legendary adventures. Hercules is the Roman name for the Greek hero Heracles. He was the son of the god Zeus and a human mother Alcmene, wife of the Theban general Amphitryon. Hera, Zeus' jealous wife, was determined to kill Hercules, and after Hercules was born, she sent two great serpents to kill him. Hercules, while he was still a baby, strangled the snakes. Hercules conquered a tribe that had been demanding money from Thebes. As a reward, he was given the hand in marriage of the Theben princess Megara and they had three children. Hera, still filled hatred of Hercules, sent him into madness, which made him kill his wife and children. In horror and remorse at what he did, Hercules was about to kill himself. But he was told by the oracle at Delphi that he should purge himself by becoming the servant of his cousin Eurystheus, king of Mycenae. Eurystheus, urged by Hera, planned as a punishment the 12 impossible tasks, the "Labors of Hercules."
The Twelve Labors
The first task was to kill the lion of Nemea, a lion that could not be hurt by any weapon. Hercules knocked out the lion with his club first, then he strangled it to death. He wore the skin of the lion as a cloak and the head of the lion as a helmet, a trophy of his adventure.
The second task was to kill the Hydra that lived in a swamp in Lerna. The Hydra had nine heads. One head was immortal and when one of the others was chopped off, two grew back in its place. Cancer, one of the Hydra's guards, bit Hercules on the foot when he came near, and was crushed by Hercules, but she was rescued by Hera. Hercules scorched each mortal neck with a burning torch to prevent it from growing two heads and he buried the immortal head under a rock. He then dipped his arrows in the Hydra's blood to make them poisonous.
Hercules' next labor is to capture alive a stag with golden horns and bronze hoofs that was sacred to Artemis, goddess of the hunt.
The fourth labor was to capture a great boar in Mount Erymanthus. Hercules used the poison arrows with the Hydra's blood to shoot at the Erymanthian boar. One of the poison arrows wounded Hercules' friend Cheiron, an immortal centaur, half-horse and half-man. Cheiron feared the poison arrow would hurt him for eternity, but Zeus rewarded him for his service to the gods by changing him to Sagittarius the Archer. The boar got killed by the arrows.
In the fifth labor, Hercules had to clean up in one day the 30 years of filth left by thousands of cattle in the stables of king Augeas. He turns the streams of two rivers, making them flow through the stables.
For the next labor, Hercules has to drive off huge flocks of man-eating birds with bronze beaks, claws, and wings that lived near Lake Stymphalus. He shot them with poisonous arrows and killed them.
The seventh labor was to capture the man-eating mares of Diomedes, king of Thrace. To bring back the man-eating mares, Hercules killed king Diomedes, then drove the mares to Mycenae.
For the ninth labor, Hercules needed the girdle of Queen Hippolyta. Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons, was willing to help Hercules with the ninth labor. When she was about to give Hercules her girdle, which Eurystheus wanted for his daughter, Hera made Hippolyta's forces believe that Hercules was trying to abduct the queen. Hercules killed Hippolyta, thinking that she ordered the attack, and escaped the Amazon with the girdle.
On his way to the island of Erythia to capture the oxen of the three headed monster Geryon, Hercules set up two great rocks, the mountains Gibraltar and Ceuta, which now flank the Straight of Gibraltar, as a memorial of his journey of capturing the oxen.
The 11th labor was to steal the golden apples of Hesperides, the daughter of Atlas and husband of Hesperus. The apples grew in the garden of Hesperides, which is in the western edge of the world, beyond the Island of Hyperborea and on the border of Ocean. The garden is guarded by Ladon, the dragon with 100 heads. The apples were very important because they were grown by Mother Earth as a wedding present for Hera and Zeus. Hercules reached Ocean and found Atlas holding up the sky. Hercules offered to hold the sky while Atlas killed Ladon and got the apples. But Atlas was tired of holding the sky and told Hercules that he might continue holding it. Hercules pretended to agree but said the weight of the sky was hurting his shoulders and asked Atlas to take over for a while so he could make pads to protect his shoulders. When Atlas took over, he took the golden apples. Later he gave the apples to Athena, who returned them to Hesperides.
The 12th and most difficult labor was to bring back Cerberus, the three-headed dog, from the underworld. Hades, lord of the underworld, allowed Hercules to take Cerberus if he used no weapons. Hercules captured Cerberus, brought him to Mycenae, and then carried him back to Hades, therefore, completing the Twelve Labors.
After completing the Twelve Labors, Hercules fought Antaeus, son of the sea god Poseidon, for the hand of Deianira. As he was taking her home, the centaur Nessus attacked Deianira. Hercules wounded him with an arrow poisoned in the blood of the Hydra. The dying centaur told Deianira to take some of his blood, which he said was a powerful love charm and anyone wearing clothing with his blood rubbed on it will love her forever. The centaur's blood was actually a poison. Years later, Hercules fell in love with Iole, daughter of Eurytus, king of Oechalia. Deianira found out about Iole and sent Hercules a tunic with the blood of Nessus. When Hercules put on the tunic, the pain caused by the poison was so great that he killed himself and was placed on a funeral pyre on Mt. Oeta. Hercules went to heaven, where he was approved by Hera and married to Hebe, goddess of youth.
Hercules was worshipped by the Greeks as both a god and a mortal hero. In Italy, he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders, although others prayed to him for rescue from danger or good luck. The most famous statue of Hercules is in the National Museum in Naples.
Hercules, in Greek mythology, was a hero known for his strength and courage and for his legendary adventures. Hercules is the Roman name for the Greek hero Heracles. He was the son of the god Zeus and a human mother Alcmene, wife of the Theban general Amphitryon. Hera, Zeus' jealous wife, was determined to kill Hercules, and after Hercules was born, she sent two great serpents to kill him. Hercules, while he was still a baby, strangled the snakes. Hercules conquered a tribe that had been demanding money from Thebes. As a reward, he was given the hand in marriage of the Theben princess Megara and they had three children. Hera, still filled hatred of Hercules, sent him into madness, which made him kill his wife and children. In horror and remorse at what he did, Hercules was about to kill himself. But he was told by the oracle at Delphi that he should purge himself by becoming the servant of his cousin Eurystheus, king of Mycenae. Eurystheus, urged by Hera, planned as a punishment the 12 impossible tasks, the "Labors of Hercules."
The Twelve Labors
The first task was to kill the lion of Nemea, a lion that could not be hurt by any weapon. Hercules knocked out the lion with his club first, then he strangled it to death. He wore the skin of the lion as a cloak and the head of the lion as a helmet, a trophy of his adventure.
The second task was to kill the Hydra that lived in a swamp in Lerna. The Hydra had nine heads. One head was immortal and when one of the others was chopped off, two grew back in its place. Cancer, one of the Hydra's guards, bit Hercules on the foot when he came near, and was crushed by Hercules, but she was rescued by Hera. Hercules scorched each mortal neck with a burning torch to prevent it from growing two heads and he buried the immortal head under a rock. He then dipped his arrows in the Hydra's blood to make them poisonous.
Hercules' next labor is to capture alive a stag with golden horns and bronze hoofs that was sacred to Artemis, goddess of the hunt.
The fourth labor was to capture a great boar in Mount Erymanthus. Hercules used the poison arrows with the Hydra's blood to shoot at the Erymanthian boar. One of the poison arrows wounded Hercules' friend Cheiron, an immortal centaur, half-horse and half-man. Cheiron feared the poison arrow would hurt him for eternity, but Zeus rewarded him for his service to the gods by changing him to Sagittarius the Archer. The boar got killed by the arrows.
In the fifth labor, Hercules had to clean up in one day the 30 years of filth left by thousands of cattle in the stables of king Augeas. He turns the streams of two rivers, making them flow through the stables.
For the next labor, Hercules has to drive off huge flocks of man-eating birds with bronze beaks, claws, and wings that lived near Lake Stymphalus. He shot them with poisonous arrows and killed them.
The seventh labor was to capture the man-eating mares of Diomedes, king of Thrace. To bring back the man-eating mares, Hercules killed king Diomedes, then drove the mares to Mycenae.
For the ninth labor, Hercules needed the girdle of Queen Hippolyta. Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons, was willing to help Hercules with the ninth labor. When she was about to give Hercules her girdle, which Eurystheus wanted for his daughter, Hera made Hippolyta's forces believe that Hercules was trying to abduct the queen. Hercules killed Hippolyta, thinking that she ordered the attack, and escaped the Amazon with the girdle.
On his way to the island of Erythia to capture the oxen of the three headed monster Geryon, Hercules set up two great rocks, the mountains Gibraltar and Ceuta, which now flank the Straight of Gibraltar, as a memorial of his journey of capturing the oxen.
The 11th labor was to steal the golden apples of Hesperides, the daughter of Atlas and husband of Hesperus. The apples grew in the garden of Hesperides, which is in the western edge of the world, beyond the Island of Hyperborea and on the border of Ocean. The garden is guarded by Ladon, the dragon with 100 heads. The apples were very important because they were grown by Mother Earth as a wedding present for Hera and Zeus. Hercules reached Ocean and found Atlas holding up the sky. Hercules offered to hold the sky while Atlas killed Ladon and got the apples. But Atlas was tired of holding the sky and told Hercules that he might continue holding it. Hercules pretended to agree but said the weight of the sky was hurting his shoulders and asked Atlas to take over for a while so he could make pads to protect his shoulders. When Atlas took over, he took the golden apples. Later he gave the apples to Athena, who returned them to Hesperides.
The 12th and most difficult labor was to bring back Cerberus, the three-headed dog, from the underworld. Hades, lord of the underworld, allowed Hercules to take Cerberus if he used no weapons. Hercules captured Cerberus, brought him to Mycenae, and then carried him back to Hades, therefore, completing the Twelve Labors.
After completing the Twelve Labors, Hercules fought Antaeus, son of the sea god Poseidon, for the hand of Deianira. As he was taking her home, the centaur Nessus attacked Deianira. Hercules wounded him with an arrow poisoned in the blood of the Hydra. The dying centaur told Deianira to take some of his blood, which he said was a powerful love charm and anyone wearing clothing with his blood rubbed on it will love her forever. The centaur's blood was actually a poison. Years later, Hercules fell in love with Iole, daughter of Eurytus, king of Oechalia. Deianira found out about Iole and sent Hercules a tunic with the blood of Nessus. When Hercules put on the tunic, the pain caused by the poison was so great that he killed himself and was placed on a funeral pyre on Mt. Oeta. Hercules went to heaven, where he was approved by Hera and married to Hebe, goddess of youth.
Hercules was worshipped by the Greeks as both a god and a mortal hero. In Italy, he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders, although others prayed to him for rescue from danger or good luck. The most famous statue of Hercules is in the National Museum in Naples.
Greek Mythology
Greek Mythology
The ancient Greeks used stories containing God's to explain the way life was. Often times there were lessons to be learned that described human behavior. To the Greeks the myths were looked at as examples of good and bad behavior and its effects. they worshipped the Gods and tried not to offend them in any way. The story of creation is a prime example of how the Greeks viewed the heavens and the earth. Zeus was the king of the sky, earth, and men. Zeus' son Apollo urged all Greeks to follow these words: "Nothing in excess" and "Know your limitations." These are words that even humans today should take to heart. The Greeks believed in manlike deities as well, whom were capable of spite, favoritism, and jealousy. The only difference being their ability to perform supernatural powers and immortality.
The creation of the world according to the Greeks goes as follows:
In the beginning there was only chaos. Out of this void appeared Erebus, the unknowable place where death dwells, and Night (Nyx). All else was empty, silent, endless, darkness. Upon the birth of Love(Eros) brought a start of order. From Love came Light and Day. Once there was Light and Day, Gaea appeared. Gaea was the Earth goddess. Erebus then slept with Night, producing Aether and Day. Aether was the heavenly light and Day was the light of the Earth. Night solely produced Death, Doom, Dreams, Fate, Nemesis, Sleep, among others that come to man out of the darkness. Meanwhile Gaea gave birth to Uranus. Uranus was the sky god and first ruler who later became married to his creator, Gaea. Together they proceeded to have the three Cyclopes, the three Hecatoncheires, and twelve Titans.
However, Uranus was a bad father and husband. He disliked the Hecatoncheires and expressed his hatred by imprisoning them into the hidden places of the earth, Gaea's womb. This angered Gaea and she plotted against Uranus. She tried to get her children to attack Uranus. All were too afraid except, the youngest Titan, Cronus. Gaea and Cronus set up an ambush of Uranus as he lay with Gaea at night. Cronus grabbed his father and castrated him, with a sharp object, throwing the severed genitals into the ocean. After this Uranus either died, withdrew from the earth, or exiled himself to Italy. As he departed he promised that. Cronus and the Titans would be punished. From his spilt blood came the Giants, the Ash Tree Nymphs, and the Erinyes. From the sea foam where his genitals fell came Aphrodite. She arose from the sea and walked to the shore in Cyprus. She was the goddess of love, desire, and beauty. Along with her natural gifts she was able to compel whomever she desired with the use of a magical girdle. After the absence of Uranus,
Cronus became the next ruler. He imprisoned the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires in Tartarus and married his sister Rhea. Together the Titans had many offspring while Cronus ruled for many ages. However, Gaea and Uranus both had prophesied that he would be overthrown by a son. To avoid this Cronus swallowed each of his children as they were born. Rhea was angry at the treatment of the children and plotted against Cronus. When it came time to give birth to her sixth child, Rhea hid herself, then she left the child to be raised by nymphs. To conceal her act she wrapped a stone in swaddling cloths and passed it off as the baby to Cronus, who swallowed it.
The surviving child was Zeus. He was the lord of the sky and the rain god. His weapon was a thunderbolt which he threw at those who upset him, often punishing those that lie or break oaths. He grew into a handsome youth on Crete. He consulted Metis on how to defeat Cronus. She prepared a drink for Cronus design to make him vomit up the other children. Rhea convinced Cronus to accept his son and Zeus was allowed to return to Mount Olympus as Cronus's cupbearer. This gave Zeus the opportunity to slip Cronus the specially prepared drink. This worked as planned and the other five children were vomited up. Being gods they were unharmed. They were thankful to Zeus and made him their leader. Metis presided over all wisdom and knowledge. However, she was seduced by Zeus and became pregnant with Athena. Zeus became concerned over prophecies that her second child would replace him. Out of this fear Zeus ate her. It is said that she is still the source of wisdom for Zeus.
Cronus was yet to be defeated. He and the Titans, except Prometheus, Epimetheus, and Oceanus, fought to retain their power. Since Cronus was old of age, Atlas became their leader in battle and it looked for some time as though they would win and put the young gods down. However, Zeus was cunning. He went down to Tartarus and freed the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires. Prometheus joined Zeus as well. He returned to battle with his new allies. The Cyclopes provided Zeus with lighting bolts for weapons. The Hecatoncheires he set in ambush armed with boulders. With the time right, Zeus retreated drawing the Titans into the Hecatoncheires's ambush. The Hecatoncheires rained down hundreds of boulders with such a fury the Titans thought the mountains were falling on them. They broke and ran giving Zeus victory.
Zeus exiled the Titans who had fought against him into Tartarus. Except for Atlas, who was singled out for the special punishment of holding the world on his shoulders. However, even after this victory Zeus was not safe. Gaea angry that her children had been imprisoned gave birth to a last offspring, Typhoeus. Typhoeus was so fearsome that most of the gods fled. However, Zeus faced the monster and flinging his lighting bolts was able to kill it. Typhoeus was buried under Mount Etna in Sicily. Much later a final challenge to Zeus rule was made by the Giants. They went so far as to attempt to invade Mount Olympus, piling mountain upon mountain in an effort to reach the top. But, the gods had grown strong and with the help of Heracles the Giants were subdued or killed.
The Gods and the stories of their being were important to the Greeks. To us these ideas are unheard of, but to the Greeks this was their way of life. In 2000 years from now our ideas may be unrealistic also. The creation story allows us to see how they viewed they world and those in it.
The ancient Greeks used stories containing God's to explain the way life was. Often times there were lessons to be learned that described human behavior. To the Greeks the myths were looked at as examples of good and bad behavior and its effects. they worshipped the Gods and tried not to offend them in any way. The story of creation is a prime example of how the Greeks viewed the heavens and the earth. Zeus was the king of the sky, earth, and men. Zeus' son Apollo urged all Greeks to follow these words: "Nothing in excess" and "Know your limitations." These are words that even humans today should take to heart. The Greeks believed in manlike deities as well, whom were capable of spite, favoritism, and jealousy. The only difference being their ability to perform supernatural powers and immortality.
The creation of the world according to the Greeks goes as follows:
In the beginning there was only chaos. Out of this void appeared Erebus, the unknowable place where death dwells, and Night (Nyx). All else was empty, silent, endless, darkness. Upon the birth of Love(Eros) brought a start of order. From Love came Light and Day. Once there was Light and Day, Gaea appeared. Gaea was the Earth goddess. Erebus then slept with Night, producing Aether and Day. Aether was the heavenly light and Day was the light of the Earth. Night solely produced Death, Doom, Dreams, Fate, Nemesis, Sleep, among others that come to man out of the darkness. Meanwhile Gaea gave birth to Uranus. Uranus was the sky god and first ruler who later became married to his creator, Gaea. Together they proceeded to have the three Cyclopes, the three Hecatoncheires, and twelve Titans.
However, Uranus was a bad father and husband. He disliked the Hecatoncheires and expressed his hatred by imprisoning them into the hidden places of the earth, Gaea's womb. This angered Gaea and she plotted against Uranus. She tried to get her children to attack Uranus. All were too afraid except, the youngest Titan, Cronus. Gaea and Cronus set up an ambush of Uranus as he lay with Gaea at night. Cronus grabbed his father and castrated him, with a sharp object, throwing the severed genitals into the ocean. After this Uranus either died, withdrew from the earth, or exiled himself to Italy. As he departed he promised that. Cronus and the Titans would be punished. From his spilt blood came the Giants, the Ash Tree Nymphs, and the Erinyes. From the sea foam where his genitals fell came Aphrodite. She arose from the sea and walked to the shore in Cyprus. She was the goddess of love, desire, and beauty. Along with her natural gifts she was able to compel whomever she desired with the use of a magical girdle. After the absence of Uranus,
Cronus became the next ruler. He imprisoned the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires in Tartarus and married his sister Rhea. Together the Titans had many offspring while Cronus ruled for many ages. However, Gaea and Uranus both had prophesied that he would be overthrown by a son. To avoid this Cronus swallowed each of his children as they were born. Rhea was angry at the treatment of the children and plotted against Cronus. When it came time to give birth to her sixth child, Rhea hid herself, then she left the child to be raised by nymphs. To conceal her act she wrapped a stone in swaddling cloths and passed it off as the baby to Cronus, who swallowed it.
The surviving child was Zeus. He was the lord of the sky and the rain god. His weapon was a thunderbolt which he threw at those who upset him, often punishing those that lie or break oaths. He grew into a handsome youth on Crete. He consulted Metis on how to defeat Cronus. She prepared a drink for Cronus design to make him vomit up the other children. Rhea convinced Cronus to accept his son and Zeus was allowed to return to Mount Olympus as Cronus's cupbearer. This gave Zeus the opportunity to slip Cronus the specially prepared drink. This worked as planned and the other five children were vomited up. Being gods they were unharmed. They were thankful to Zeus and made him their leader. Metis presided over all wisdom and knowledge. However, she was seduced by Zeus and became pregnant with Athena. Zeus became concerned over prophecies that her second child would replace him. Out of this fear Zeus ate her. It is said that she is still the source of wisdom for Zeus.
Cronus was yet to be defeated. He and the Titans, except Prometheus, Epimetheus, and Oceanus, fought to retain their power. Since Cronus was old of age, Atlas became their leader in battle and it looked for some time as though they would win and put the young gods down. However, Zeus was cunning. He went down to Tartarus and freed the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires. Prometheus joined Zeus as well. He returned to battle with his new allies. The Cyclopes provided Zeus with lighting bolts for weapons. The Hecatoncheires he set in ambush armed with boulders. With the time right, Zeus retreated drawing the Titans into the Hecatoncheires's ambush. The Hecatoncheires rained down hundreds of boulders with such a fury the Titans thought the mountains were falling on them. They broke and ran giving Zeus victory.
Zeus exiled the Titans who had fought against him into Tartarus. Except for Atlas, who was singled out for the special punishment of holding the world on his shoulders. However, even after this victory Zeus was not safe. Gaea angry that her children had been imprisoned gave birth to a last offspring, Typhoeus. Typhoeus was so fearsome that most of the gods fled. However, Zeus faced the monster and flinging his lighting bolts was able to kill it. Typhoeus was buried under Mount Etna in Sicily. Much later a final challenge to Zeus rule was made by the Giants. They went so far as to attempt to invade Mount Olympus, piling mountain upon mountain in an effort to reach the top. But, the gods had grown strong and with the help of Heracles the Giants were subdued or killed.
The Gods and the stories of their being were important to the Greeks. To us these ideas are unheard of, but to the Greeks this was their way of life. In 2000 years from now our ideas may be unrealistic also. The creation story allows us to see how they viewed they world and those in it.
Greek Literature
Greek literature
GREEK LITERATURE. The great British philosopher-mathematician Alfred North Whitehead once commented that all philosophy is but a footnote to Plato . A similar point can be made regarding Greek literature as a whole.
Over a period of more than ten centuries, the ancient Greeks created a literature of such brilliance that it has rarely been equaled and never surpassed. In poetry, tragedy, comedy, and history, Greek writers created masterpieces that have inspired, influenced, and challenged readers to the present day.
To suggest that all Western literature is no more than a footnote to the writings of classical Greece is an exaggeration, but it is nevertheless true that the Greek world of thought was so far-ranging that there is scarcely an idea discussed today that was not debated by the ancient writers. The only body of literature of comparable influence is the Bible.
The language in which the ancient authors wrote was Greek. Like English, Greek is an Indo-European language; but it is far older. Its history can be followed from the 14th century BC to the present. Its literature, therefore, covers a longer period of time than that of any other Indo-European language .
Scholars have determined that the Greek alphabet was derived from the Phoenician alphabet. During the period from the 8th to the 5th century BC, local differences caused the forms of letters to vary from one city-state to another within Greece. From the 4th century BC on, however, the alphabet became uniform throughout the Greek world.
CLASSICAL PERIOD
There are four major periods of Greek literature: preclassical, classical, Hellenistic-Roman, and Byzantine. Of these the most significant works were produced during the preclassical and classical eras.
Epic Tradition
At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer, the 'Iliad' and the 'Odyssey'. The figure of Homer is shrouded in mystery. Although the works as they now stand are credited to him, it is certain that their roots reach far back before his time (see Homeric Legend). The 'Iliad' is the famous story about the Trojan War. It centers on the person of Achilles, who embodied the Greek heroic ideal.
While the 'Iliad' is pure tragedy, the 'Odyssey' is a mixture of tragedy and comedy. It is the story of Odysseus, one of the warriors at Troy. After ten years fighting the war, he spends another ten years sailing back home to his wife and family. During his ten-year voyage, he loses all of his comrades and ships and makes his way home to Ithaca disguised as a beggar.
Both of these works were based on ancient legends. The stories are told in language that is simple, direct, and eloquent. Both are as fascinatingly readable today as they were in ancient Greece.
The other great poet of the preclassical period was Hesiod. He is more definitely recorded in history than is Homer, though very little is known about him. He was a native of Boeotia in central Greece, and he lived and worked in about 800 BC. His two works were 'Works and Days' and 'Theogony'.
The first is a faithful depiction of the dull and poverty-stricken country life he knew so well, and it sets forth principles and rules for farmers. 'Theogony' is a systematic account of creation and of the gods. It vividly describes the ages of mankind, beginning with a long-past golden age.
Together the works of Homer and Hesiod made a kind of bible for the Greeks. Homer told the story of a heroic past, and Hesiod dealt with the practical realities of daily life.
Lyric Poetry
The type of poetry called lyric got its name from the fact that it was originally sung by individuals or a chorus accompanied by the instrument called the lyre. The first of the lyric poets was probably Archilochus of Paros about 700 BC. Only fragments remain of his work, as is the case with most of the poets. The few remnants suggest that he was an embittered adventurer who led a very turbulent life.
The two major poets were Sappho and Pindar. Sappho, who lived in the period from 610 to 580 BC, has always been admired for the beauty of her writing. Her themes were personal. They dealt with her friendships with and dislikes of other women, though her brother Charaxus was the subject of several poems. Unfortunately, only fragments of her poems remain.
With Pindar the transition has been made from the preclassical to the classical age. He was born about 518 BC and is considered the greatest of the Greek lyricists. His masterpieces were the poems that celebrated athletic victories in the games at Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and the Isthmus of Corinth.
Tragedy
The Greeks invented the epic and lyric forms and used them skillfully. They also invented drama and produced masterpieces that are still reckoned as drama's crowning achievement. In the age that followed the defeat of Persia (490 to 479 BC), the awakened national spirit of Athens was expressed in hundreds of superb tragedies based on heroic and legendary themes of the past.
The tragic plays grew out of simple choral songs and dialogues performed at festivals of the god Dionysus. Wealthy citizens were chosen to bear the expense of costuming and training the chorus as a public and religious duty. Attendance at the festival performances was regarded as an act of worship. Performances were held in the great open-air theater of Dionysus in Athens. All of the greatest poets competed for the prizes offered for the best plays.
Of the hundreds of dramas written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors have survived: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The earliest of the three was Aeschylus, who was born in 525 BC. He wrote between 70 and 90 plays, of which only seven remain. Many of his dramas were arranged as trilogies, groups of three plays on a single theme. The 'Oresteia' (story of Orestes) consisting of 'Agamemnon', 'Choephoroi' (Libation-bearers), and 'Eumenides' (Furies) is the only surviving trilogy. The 'Persai' is a song of triumph for the defeat of the Persians . 'Prometheus Bound' is a retelling of the legend of the Titan Prometheus, a superhuman who stole fire from heaven and gave it to mankind.
For about 16 years, between 484 and 468 BC, Aeschylus carried off prize after prize. But in 468 his place was taken by a new favorite, Sophocles of Colonus (496-406). Sophocles' life covered nearly the whole period of Athens' "golden age." He won more than 20 victories at the Dionysian festivals and produced more than 100 plays, only seven of which remain. His drama 'Antigone' is typical of his work: its heroine is a model of womanly self-sacrifice. He is probably better known, though, for 'Oedipus Rex' and its sequel, 'Oedipus at Colonus'.
The third of the great tragic writers was Euripides (484-406). He wrote at least 92 plays. Sixty-seven of these are known in the 20th century some just in part or by name only. Only 19 still exist in full. One of these is 'Rhesus', which is believed by some scholars not to have been written by Euripides. His tragedies are about real men and women instead of idealized figures.
The philosopher Aristotle called Euripides the most tragic of the poets because his plays were the most moving. His dramas are performed on the modern stage more often than those of any other ancient poet. His best-known work is probably the powerful 'Medea', but his 'Alcestis', 'Hippolytus', 'Trojan Women', 'Orestes', and 'Electra' are no less brilliant
Comedy
Like tragedy, comedy arose from a ritual in honor of Dionysus, but in this case the plays were full of frank obscenity, abuse, and insult. At Athens the comedies became an official part of the festival celebration in 486 BC, and prizes were offered for the best productions.
As with the tragedians, few works still remain of the great comedic writers. Of the works of earlier writers, only some plays by Aristophanes exist. These are a treasure trove of comic presentation. He poked fun at everyone and every institution.
For boldness of fantasy, for merciless insult, for unqualified indecency, and for outrageous and free political criticism, there is nothing to compare to the comedies of Aristophanes. In 'The Birds' he held up Athenian democracy to ridicule. In 'The Clouds' he attacked the philosopher Socrates. In 'Lysistrata' he denounced war. Only 11 of his plays have survived.
During the 4th century BC, there developed what was called the New Comedy. Menander is considered the best of its writers. Nothing remains from his competitors, however, so it is difficult to make comparisons. The plays of Menander, of which only the 'Dyscolus' (Misanthrope) now exists, did not deal with the great public themes about which Aristophanes wrote. He concentrated instead on fictitious characters from everyday life stern fathers, young lovers, intriguing slaves, and others. In spite of his narrower focus, the plays of Menander influenced later generations. They were freely adapted by the Roman poets Plautus and Terence in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. The comedies of the French playwright Moliere are reminiscent of those by Menander .
History
Two of the most excellent historians who have ever written flourished during Greece's classical age: Herodotus and Thucydides. Herodotus is commonly called the father of history, and his 'History' contains the first truly literary use of prose in Western literature.
Of the two, Thucydides was the better historian. His critical use of sources, inclusion of documents, and laborious research made his 'History of the Peloponnesian War' a significant influence on later generations of historians.
A third historian, Xenophon, began his 'Hellenica' where Thucydides ended his work about 411 BC and carried his history to 362 BC. His writings were superficial in comparison to those of Thucydides, but he wrote with authority on military matters. He therefore is at his best in the 'Anabasis', an account of his participation in a Greek mercenary army that tried to help the Persian Cyrus expel his brother from the throne. Xenophon also wrote three works in praise of the philosopher Socrates 'Apology', 'Symposium', and 'Memorabilia' (Recollections of Socrates). Although both Xenophon and Plato knew Socrates, their accounts are very different, and it is interesting to compare the view of the military historian to that of the poet-philosopher.
Philosophy
The greatest prose achievement of the 4th century was in philosophy. There were many Greek philosophers, but three names tower above the rest: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. It is impossible to calculate the enormous influence these thinkers have had on Western society . Socrates himself wrote nothing, but his thought (or a reasonable presentation of it) has been preserved in the 'Dialogues' of Plato. Even in translation, Plato's style is one of matchless beauty. All human experience is within its range. Best known of the 'Dialogues' is the 'Republic', a fairly long work. There are also many shorter books such as the 'Apology', 'Protagoras', and 'Gorgias' that contain the penetratingly insightful conversations of Socrates and his friends on every matter relating to human behavior.
In the history of human thought, Aristotle is virtually without rivals. The first sentence of his 'Metaphysics' reads: "All men by nature desire to know." He has, therefore, been called the "Father of those who know." His medieval disciple Thomas Aquinas referred to him simply as "the Philosopher."
Aristotle was a student at Plato's Academy, and it is known that like his teacher he wrote dialogues, or conversations. None of these exists today. The body of writings that has come down to the present probably represents lectures that he delivered at his own school in Athens, the Lyceum. Even from these books the enormous range of his interests is evident. He explored matters other than those that are today considered philosophical. The treatises that exist cover logic, the physical and biological sciences, ethics, politics, and constitutional government. There are also treatises on 'The Soul' and 'Rhetoric'. His 'Poetics' has had an enormous influence on literary theory and served as an interpretation of tragedy for more than 2,000 years.
With the death of Aristotle in 322 BC, the classical era of Greek literature drew to a close. In the successive centuries of Greek writing there was never again such a brilliant flowering of genius as appeared in the 5th and 4th centuries BC.
For today's readers there are excellent modern translations of classical Greek literature. Most are available in paperback editions.
HELLENISTIC-ROMAN PERIOD
By 338 BC all of the Greek city-states except Sparta had been conquered by Philip II of Macedon. Greece was not independent again until the early 19th century, a period of more than 2,000 years. Philip's son Alexander the Great extended his father's conquests greatly. In so doing he inaugurated what is called the Age of Hellenism.
The Greek word for Greece was Hellas. Hellenism, therefore, signifies the spread of Greek language, literature, and culture throughout the Mediterranean world. Alexander's conquests were in the East, and Greek culture shifted first in that direction. Athens lost its preeminent status as the leader of Greek culture, and it was replaced temporarily by Alexandria, Egypt. After the rise of Rome, all the Mediterranean area was brought within one far-flung empire. Greek civilization then spread westward as well. Educated Romans learned to speak and write Greek, and they looked to Greece's golden age for inspiration in philosophy, poetry, and drama. So dependent did Roman writers become, in fact, that they produced very little that was not based upon Greek works, especially in drama and philosophy.
Library of Alexandria
The city of Alexandria in northern Egypt became, from the 3rd century BC, the outstanding center of Greek culture. It also soon attracted a large Jewish population, making it the largest center for Jewish scholarship in the ancient world. In addition, it later became a major focal point for the development of Christian thought.
The Museum, or Shrine to the Muses, which included the library and school, was founded by Ptolemy I. The institution was from the beginning intended as a great international school and library. The library, eventually containing more than a half million volumes, was mostly in Greek. It served as a repository for every Greek work of the classical period that could be found. Had the library lasted, it would have presented to modern scholars nearly every ancient book for study. The library lasted for several centuries but was destroyed during the reign of the Roman emperor Aurelian late in the 3rd century AD. A smaller library was destroyed by the Christians in 391 because it harbored so many non-Christian works.
Hellenistic Poetry
Later Greek poetry flourished primarily in the 3rd century BC. The chief poets were Theocritus, Callimachus, and Apollonius of Rhodes.
Theocritus, who lived from about 310 to 250 BC, was the creator of pastoral poetry, a type that the Roman Virgil mastered in his 'Eclogues'. Of his rural-farm poetry, 'Harvest Home' is considered the best work. He also wrote mimes poetic plays set in the country as well as minor epics and lyric poetry.
Callimachus, who lived at the same time as Theocritus, worked his entire adult life at Alexandria, where he was cataloger of the library. Only fragments of his poetry survive. The most famous work was 'Aetia' (Causes). It is a kind of poem called an elegy and in four books explains the legendary origin of obscure customs, festivals, and names. Its structure became a model for the work of the Roman poet Ovid. Of his elegies for special occasions, the best known is the 'Lock of Berenice', a piece of court poetry that was later adapted by the Roman Catullus. Callimachus also wrote short poems for special occasions and at least one short epic, the 'Ibis', which was directed against his former pupil Apollonius.
Apollonius of Rhodes was born about 295 BC. He is best remembered for his epic the 'Argonautica', about Jason and his shipmates in search of the golden fleece. Apollonius studied under Callimachus, with whom he later quarreled. He also served as librarian at Alexandria for about 13 years. Apart from the 'Argonautica', he wrote poems on the foundation of cities as well as a number of epigrams. The Roman poet Virgil was strongly influenced by the 'Argonautica' in writing his 'Aeneid' .
Lesser 3rd-century poets include Aratus of Soli and Herodas. Aratus wrote the 'Phaenomena', a poetic version of a treatise on the stars by Eudoxus of Cnidos, who had lived in the 4th century. Herodas wrote mimes reminiscent of those of Theocritus. His works give a hint of the popular entertainment of the times. Mime and pantomime were a major form of entertainment during the early Roman Empire.
Hellenistic Prose
History. The significant historians in the period after Alexander were Timaeus, Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Appian of Alexandria, Arrian, and Plutarch. The period of time they cover extended from late in the 4th century BC to the 2nd century AD.
Timaeus was born in Sicily but spent most of his life in Athens. His 'History', though lost, is significant because of its influence on Polybius. In 38 books it covered the history of Sicily and Italy to the year 264 BC, which is where Polybius began his work. Timaeus also wrote the 'Olympionikai', a valuable chronological study of the Olympic Games.
Polybius was born about 200 BC. He was brought to Rome as a hostage in 168. At Rome he became a friend of the general Scipio Aemilianus. He probably accompanied the general to Spain and North Africa in the wars against Carthage. He was with Scipio at the destruction of Carthage in 146. The history on which his reputation rests consisted of 40 books, five of which have been preserved along with various excerpts. They are a vivid recreation of Rome's rise to world power. A lost book, 'Tactics', was on military matters.
Diodorus Siculus lived in the 1st century BC, the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus. He wrote a universal history, 'Bibliotheca historica', in 40 books. Of these, the first five and the 11th through the 20th remain. The first two parts covered history through the early Hellenistic era. The third part takes the story to the beginning of Caesar's wars in Gaul, now France.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus lived late in the 1st century BC. His history of Rome from its origins to the First Punic War (264 to 241 BC) is written from a Roman point of view, but it is carefully researched. He also wrote a number of other treatises, including 'On Imitation', 'Commentaries on the Ancient Orators', and 'On the Arrangement of Words'.
Appian and Arrian both lived in the 2nd century AD. Appian wrote on Rome and its conquests, while Arrian is remembered for his work on the campaigns of Alexander the Great. Arrian served in the Roman army. His book therefore concentrates heavily on the military aspects of Alexander's life. Arrian also wrote a philosophical treatise, the 'Diatribai', based on the teachings of his mentor Epictetus .
Best known of the late Greek historians to modern readers is Plutarch, who died about AD 119. His 'Parallel Lives' of great Greek and Roman leaders has been read by every generation since the work was first published. His other surviving work is the 'Moralia', a collection of essays on ethical, religious, political, physical, and literary topics.
Science and mathematics. Eratosthenes of Alexandria, who died about 194 BC, wrote on astronomy and geography, but his work is known mainly from later summaries. He is credited with being the first person to measure the Earth's circumference.
Much that was written by the mathematicians Euclid and Archimedes has been preserved. Euclid is known for his 'Elements', much of which was drawn from his predecessor Eudoxus of Cnidus. The 'Elements' is a treatise on geometry, and it has exerted a continuing influence on mathematics.
From Archimedes several treatises have come down to the present. Among them are 'Measurement of the Circle', in which he worked out the value of pi; 'Method Concerning Mechanical Theorems', on his work in mechanics; 'The Sand-Reckoner'; and 'On Floating Bodies'.
The physician Galen, in the history of ancient science, is the most significant person in medicine after Hippocrates, who laid the foundation of medicine in the 5th century BC. Galen lived during the 2nd century AD. He was a careful student of anatomy, and his works exerted a powerful influence on medicine for the next 1,400 years .
Strabo, who died about AD 23, was a geographer and historian. His 'Historical Sketches' in 47 volumes has nearly all been lost. His 'Geographical Sketches' remain as the only existing ancient book covering the whole range of people and countries known to the Greeks and Romans through the time of Augustus.
Pausanias, who lived in the 2nd century AD, was also a geographer. His 'Description of Greece' is an invaluable guide to what are now ancient ruins. His book takes the form of a tour of Greece, starting in Athens. The accuracy of his descriptions has been proved by archaeological excavations.
The scientist of the Roman period who had the greatest influence on later generations was undoubtedly the astronomer Ptolemy. He lived during the 2nd century AD, though little is known of his life. His masterpiece, originally entitled 'The Mathematical Collection', has come to the present under the title 'Almagest', as it was translated by Arab astronomers with that title.
It was Ptolemy who devised a detailed description of an Earth-centered universe, an erroneous notion that dominated astronomical thinking for more than 1,300 years. The Ptolemaic view of the universe endured until the early modern astronomers Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler overturned it.
The Septuagint. One of the most valuable contributions of the Hellenistic period was the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek. The work was done at Alexandria and completed by the end of the 2nd century BC. The name Septuagint means "seventy," from the tradition that there were 72 scholars who did the work. Since the language of the early Christian community was Greek, the Septuagint became its Bible. Other books not in the Hebrew Bible were also written in Greek and included what is called the Apocrypha
Philosophy. Later philosophical works were no match for Plato and Aristotle. Epictetus, who died about AD 135, was associated with the moral philosophy of the Stoics. His teachings were collected by his pupil Arrian in the 'Discourses' and the 'Encheiridion' (Manual of Study). Diogenes Laertius, who lived in the 3rd century, wrote 'Lives, Teachings, and Sayings of Famous Philosophers', a useful sourcebook. Another major philosopher was Plotinus. He, too, lived in the 3rd century. He transformed Plato's philosophy into a school called Neoplatonism. His 'Enneads' had a wide-ranging influence on European thought until at least the 17th century.
BYZANTINE LITERATURE
Constantine the Great moved the capital of the empire from Rome to Byzantium (now Istanbul) in about AD 330 and renamed the city Constantinople. The Eastern, or Byzantine, Empire lasted until it was destroyed by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 . The civilization of this empire was Greek in language and heritage, but it was Christian in religion.
In religion the crowning literary achievement was considered to be the New Testament portion of the Christian Bible. This, coupled with a reverence for the great literary traditions of the past, combined to make Byzantine literature very conservative. The written language had to preserve the forms of speech of the New Testament and the Church Fathers. Being heirs to such a great literary tradition excluded any interest in outside ideas.
This undue emphasis on form smothered any likelihood of originality and invention. The literary creations of the period have, therefore, bequeathed few memorable works to the present.
Much of the writing was necessarily religious: sermons, hymns, theological works, and descriptions of the lives of the martyrs and saints. Of the few authors who are still read may be mentioned Eusebius (died 340), who wrote the first church history; St. Basil the Great (died 379), who organized Eastern monasticism; his brother Gregory of Nyssa (died 394), who wrote many works in which he combined Platonic philosophy with Christian teaching; and Gregory of Nazianzus (died 389), who is noted for his poems, sermons, letters, and writings on theological controversies.
The writings of the historians, geographers, philosophers, scientists, and rhetoricians are read today largely as curiosities or as sources of historical information. A work such as 'Byzantine History', a 37-volume study by Nicephorus Gregoras (died 1360), for example, constitutes a valuable primary source for the 14th century.
In philosophy only Proclus (died 485) deserves mention. He was the last major Greek philosopher and was influential in spreading the ideas of Neoplatonism throughout the Mediterranean world.
The only literature that showed any real originality was that written in the vernacular, the language of the common people. This literature including poems, romances, and epics was only written from the 12th century onward. Of the epics, the most memorable is the story of Digenis Akritas, based on a historical figure who died in about 788. It presents Akritas as the ideal medieval Greek hero.
After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, Greek national life and culture ended for centuries, as did literary production. It was only revived when Greece became independent in 1829
GREEK LITERATURE. The great British philosopher-mathematician Alfred North Whitehead once commented that all philosophy is but a footnote to Plato . A similar point can be made regarding Greek literature as a whole.
Over a period of more than ten centuries, the ancient Greeks created a literature of such brilliance that it has rarely been equaled and never surpassed. In poetry, tragedy, comedy, and history, Greek writers created masterpieces that have inspired, influenced, and challenged readers to the present day.
To suggest that all Western literature is no more than a footnote to the writings of classical Greece is an exaggeration, but it is nevertheless true that the Greek world of thought was so far-ranging that there is scarcely an idea discussed today that was not debated by the ancient writers. The only body of literature of comparable influence is the Bible.
The language in which the ancient authors wrote was Greek. Like English, Greek is an Indo-European language; but it is far older. Its history can be followed from the 14th century BC to the present. Its literature, therefore, covers a longer period of time than that of any other Indo-European language .
Scholars have determined that the Greek alphabet was derived from the Phoenician alphabet. During the period from the 8th to the 5th century BC, local differences caused the forms of letters to vary from one city-state to another within Greece. From the 4th century BC on, however, the alphabet became uniform throughout the Greek world.
CLASSICAL PERIOD
There are four major periods of Greek literature: preclassical, classical, Hellenistic-Roman, and Byzantine. Of these the most significant works were produced during the preclassical and classical eras.
Epic Tradition
At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer, the 'Iliad' and the 'Odyssey'. The figure of Homer is shrouded in mystery. Although the works as they now stand are credited to him, it is certain that their roots reach far back before his time (see Homeric Legend). The 'Iliad' is the famous story about the Trojan War. It centers on the person of Achilles, who embodied the Greek heroic ideal.
While the 'Iliad' is pure tragedy, the 'Odyssey' is a mixture of tragedy and comedy. It is the story of Odysseus, one of the warriors at Troy. After ten years fighting the war, he spends another ten years sailing back home to his wife and family. During his ten-year voyage, he loses all of his comrades and ships and makes his way home to Ithaca disguised as a beggar.
Both of these works were based on ancient legends. The stories are told in language that is simple, direct, and eloquent. Both are as fascinatingly readable today as they were in ancient Greece.
The other great poet of the preclassical period was Hesiod. He is more definitely recorded in history than is Homer, though very little is known about him. He was a native of Boeotia in central Greece, and he lived and worked in about 800 BC. His two works were 'Works and Days' and 'Theogony'.
The first is a faithful depiction of the dull and poverty-stricken country life he knew so well, and it sets forth principles and rules for farmers. 'Theogony' is a systematic account of creation and of the gods. It vividly describes the ages of mankind, beginning with a long-past golden age.
Together the works of Homer and Hesiod made a kind of bible for the Greeks. Homer told the story of a heroic past, and Hesiod dealt with the practical realities of daily life.
Lyric Poetry
The type of poetry called lyric got its name from the fact that it was originally sung by individuals or a chorus accompanied by the instrument called the lyre. The first of the lyric poets was probably Archilochus of Paros about 700 BC. Only fragments remain of his work, as is the case with most of the poets. The few remnants suggest that he was an embittered adventurer who led a very turbulent life.
The two major poets were Sappho and Pindar. Sappho, who lived in the period from 610 to 580 BC, has always been admired for the beauty of her writing. Her themes were personal. They dealt with her friendships with and dislikes of other women, though her brother Charaxus was the subject of several poems. Unfortunately, only fragments of her poems remain.
With Pindar the transition has been made from the preclassical to the classical age. He was born about 518 BC and is considered the greatest of the Greek lyricists. His masterpieces were the poems that celebrated athletic victories in the games at Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and the Isthmus of Corinth.
Tragedy
The Greeks invented the epic and lyric forms and used them skillfully. They also invented drama and produced masterpieces that are still reckoned as drama's crowning achievement. In the age that followed the defeat of Persia (490 to 479 BC), the awakened national spirit of Athens was expressed in hundreds of superb tragedies based on heroic and legendary themes of the past.
The tragic plays grew out of simple choral songs and dialogues performed at festivals of the god Dionysus. Wealthy citizens were chosen to bear the expense of costuming and training the chorus as a public and religious duty. Attendance at the festival performances was regarded as an act of worship. Performances were held in the great open-air theater of Dionysus in Athens. All of the greatest poets competed for the prizes offered for the best plays.
Of the hundreds of dramas written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors have survived: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The earliest of the three was Aeschylus, who was born in 525 BC. He wrote between 70 and 90 plays, of which only seven remain. Many of his dramas were arranged as trilogies, groups of three plays on a single theme. The 'Oresteia' (story of Orestes) consisting of 'Agamemnon', 'Choephoroi' (Libation-bearers), and 'Eumenides' (Furies) is the only surviving trilogy. The 'Persai' is a song of triumph for the defeat of the Persians . 'Prometheus Bound' is a retelling of the legend of the Titan Prometheus, a superhuman who stole fire from heaven and gave it to mankind.
For about 16 years, between 484 and 468 BC, Aeschylus carried off prize after prize. But in 468 his place was taken by a new favorite, Sophocles of Colonus (496-406). Sophocles' life covered nearly the whole period of Athens' "golden age." He won more than 20 victories at the Dionysian festivals and produced more than 100 plays, only seven of which remain. His drama 'Antigone' is typical of his work: its heroine is a model of womanly self-sacrifice. He is probably better known, though, for 'Oedipus Rex' and its sequel, 'Oedipus at Colonus'.
The third of the great tragic writers was Euripides (484-406). He wrote at least 92 plays. Sixty-seven of these are known in the 20th century some just in part or by name only. Only 19 still exist in full. One of these is 'Rhesus', which is believed by some scholars not to have been written by Euripides. His tragedies are about real men and women instead of idealized figures.
The philosopher Aristotle called Euripides the most tragic of the poets because his plays were the most moving. His dramas are performed on the modern stage more often than those of any other ancient poet. His best-known work is probably the powerful 'Medea', but his 'Alcestis', 'Hippolytus', 'Trojan Women', 'Orestes', and 'Electra' are no less brilliant
Comedy
Like tragedy, comedy arose from a ritual in honor of Dionysus, but in this case the plays were full of frank obscenity, abuse, and insult. At Athens the comedies became an official part of the festival celebration in 486 BC, and prizes were offered for the best productions.
As with the tragedians, few works still remain of the great comedic writers. Of the works of earlier writers, only some plays by Aristophanes exist. These are a treasure trove of comic presentation. He poked fun at everyone and every institution.
For boldness of fantasy, for merciless insult, for unqualified indecency, and for outrageous and free political criticism, there is nothing to compare to the comedies of Aristophanes. In 'The Birds' he held up Athenian democracy to ridicule. In 'The Clouds' he attacked the philosopher Socrates. In 'Lysistrata' he denounced war. Only 11 of his plays have survived.
During the 4th century BC, there developed what was called the New Comedy. Menander is considered the best of its writers. Nothing remains from his competitors, however, so it is difficult to make comparisons. The plays of Menander, of which only the 'Dyscolus' (Misanthrope) now exists, did not deal with the great public themes about which Aristophanes wrote. He concentrated instead on fictitious characters from everyday life stern fathers, young lovers, intriguing slaves, and others. In spite of his narrower focus, the plays of Menander influenced later generations. They were freely adapted by the Roman poets Plautus and Terence in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. The comedies of the French playwright Moliere are reminiscent of those by Menander .
History
Two of the most excellent historians who have ever written flourished during Greece's classical age: Herodotus and Thucydides. Herodotus is commonly called the father of history, and his 'History' contains the first truly literary use of prose in Western literature.
Of the two, Thucydides was the better historian. His critical use of sources, inclusion of documents, and laborious research made his 'History of the Peloponnesian War' a significant influence on later generations of historians.
A third historian, Xenophon, began his 'Hellenica' where Thucydides ended his work about 411 BC and carried his history to 362 BC. His writings were superficial in comparison to those of Thucydides, but he wrote with authority on military matters. He therefore is at his best in the 'Anabasis', an account of his participation in a Greek mercenary army that tried to help the Persian Cyrus expel his brother from the throne. Xenophon also wrote three works in praise of the philosopher Socrates 'Apology', 'Symposium', and 'Memorabilia' (Recollections of Socrates). Although both Xenophon and Plato knew Socrates, their accounts are very different, and it is interesting to compare the view of the military historian to that of the poet-philosopher.
Philosophy
The greatest prose achievement of the 4th century was in philosophy. There were many Greek philosophers, but three names tower above the rest: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. It is impossible to calculate the enormous influence these thinkers have had on Western society . Socrates himself wrote nothing, but his thought (or a reasonable presentation of it) has been preserved in the 'Dialogues' of Plato. Even in translation, Plato's style is one of matchless beauty. All human experience is within its range. Best known of the 'Dialogues' is the 'Republic', a fairly long work. There are also many shorter books such as the 'Apology', 'Protagoras', and 'Gorgias' that contain the penetratingly insightful conversations of Socrates and his friends on every matter relating to human behavior.
In the history of human thought, Aristotle is virtually without rivals. The first sentence of his 'Metaphysics' reads: "All men by nature desire to know." He has, therefore, been called the "Father of those who know." His medieval disciple Thomas Aquinas referred to him simply as "the Philosopher."
Aristotle was a student at Plato's Academy, and it is known that like his teacher he wrote dialogues, or conversations. None of these exists today. The body of writings that has come down to the present probably represents lectures that he delivered at his own school in Athens, the Lyceum. Even from these books the enormous range of his interests is evident. He explored matters other than those that are today considered philosophical. The treatises that exist cover logic, the physical and biological sciences, ethics, politics, and constitutional government. There are also treatises on 'The Soul' and 'Rhetoric'. His 'Poetics' has had an enormous influence on literary theory and served as an interpretation of tragedy for more than 2,000 years.
With the death of Aristotle in 322 BC, the classical era of Greek literature drew to a close. In the successive centuries of Greek writing there was never again such a brilliant flowering of genius as appeared in the 5th and 4th centuries BC.
For today's readers there are excellent modern translations of classical Greek literature. Most are available in paperback editions.
HELLENISTIC-ROMAN PERIOD
By 338 BC all of the Greek city-states except Sparta had been conquered by Philip II of Macedon. Greece was not independent again until the early 19th century, a period of more than 2,000 years. Philip's son Alexander the Great extended his father's conquests greatly. In so doing he inaugurated what is called the Age of Hellenism.
The Greek word for Greece was Hellas. Hellenism, therefore, signifies the spread of Greek language, literature, and culture throughout the Mediterranean world. Alexander's conquests were in the East, and Greek culture shifted first in that direction. Athens lost its preeminent status as the leader of Greek culture, and it was replaced temporarily by Alexandria, Egypt. After the rise of Rome, all the Mediterranean area was brought within one far-flung empire. Greek civilization then spread westward as well. Educated Romans learned to speak and write Greek, and they looked to Greece's golden age for inspiration in philosophy, poetry, and drama. So dependent did Roman writers become, in fact, that they produced very little that was not based upon Greek works, especially in drama and philosophy.
Library of Alexandria
The city of Alexandria in northern Egypt became, from the 3rd century BC, the outstanding center of Greek culture. It also soon attracted a large Jewish population, making it the largest center for Jewish scholarship in the ancient world. In addition, it later became a major focal point for the development of Christian thought.
The Museum, or Shrine to the Muses, which included the library and school, was founded by Ptolemy I. The institution was from the beginning intended as a great international school and library. The library, eventually containing more than a half million volumes, was mostly in Greek. It served as a repository for every Greek work of the classical period that could be found. Had the library lasted, it would have presented to modern scholars nearly every ancient book for study. The library lasted for several centuries but was destroyed during the reign of the Roman emperor Aurelian late in the 3rd century AD. A smaller library was destroyed by the Christians in 391 because it harbored so many non-Christian works.
Hellenistic Poetry
Later Greek poetry flourished primarily in the 3rd century BC. The chief poets were Theocritus, Callimachus, and Apollonius of Rhodes.
Theocritus, who lived from about 310 to 250 BC, was the creator of pastoral poetry, a type that the Roman Virgil mastered in his 'Eclogues'. Of his rural-farm poetry, 'Harvest Home' is considered the best work. He also wrote mimes poetic plays set in the country as well as minor epics and lyric poetry.
Callimachus, who lived at the same time as Theocritus, worked his entire adult life at Alexandria, where he was cataloger of the library. Only fragments of his poetry survive. The most famous work was 'Aetia' (Causes). It is a kind of poem called an elegy and in four books explains the legendary origin of obscure customs, festivals, and names. Its structure became a model for the work of the Roman poet Ovid. Of his elegies for special occasions, the best known is the 'Lock of Berenice', a piece of court poetry that was later adapted by the Roman Catullus. Callimachus also wrote short poems for special occasions and at least one short epic, the 'Ibis', which was directed against his former pupil Apollonius.
Apollonius of Rhodes was born about 295 BC. He is best remembered for his epic the 'Argonautica', about Jason and his shipmates in search of the golden fleece. Apollonius studied under Callimachus, with whom he later quarreled. He also served as librarian at Alexandria for about 13 years. Apart from the 'Argonautica', he wrote poems on the foundation of cities as well as a number of epigrams. The Roman poet Virgil was strongly influenced by the 'Argonautica' in writing his 'Aeneid' .
Lesser 3rd-century poets include Aratus of Soli and Herodas. Aratus wrote the 'Phaenomena', a poetic version of a treatise on the stars by Eudoxus of Cnidos, who had lived in the 4th century. Herodas wrote mimes reminiscent of those of Theocritus. His works give a hint of the popular entertainment of the times. Mime and pantomime were a major form of entertainment during the early Roman Empire.
Hellenistic Prose
History. The significant historians in the period after Alexander were Timaeus, Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Appian of Alexandria, Arrian, and Plutarch. The period of time they cover extended from late in the 4th century BC to the 2nd century AD.
Timaeus was born in Sicily but spent most of his life in Athens. His 'History', though lost, is significant because of its influence on Polybius. In 38 books it covered the history of Sicily and Italy to the year 264 BC, which is where Polybius began his work. Timaeus also wrote the 'Olympionikai', a valuable chronological study of the Olympic Games.
Polybius was born about 200 BC. He was brought to Rome as a hostage in 168. At Rome he became a friend of the general Scipio Aemilianus. He probably accompanied the general to Spain and North Africa in the wars against Carthage. He was with Scipio at the destruction of Carthage in 146. The history on which his reputation rests consisted of 40 books, five of which have been preserved along with various excerpts. They are a vivid recreation of Rome's rise to world power. A lost book, 'Tactics', was on military matters.
Diodorus Siculus lived in the 1st century BC, the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus. He wrote a universal history, 'Bibliotheca historica', in 40 books. Of these, the first five and the 11th through the 20th remain. The first two parts covered history through the early Hellenistic era. The third part takes the story to the beginning of Caesar's wars in Gaul, now France.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus lived late in the 1st century BC. His history of Rome from its origins to the First Punic War (264 to 241 BC) is written from a Roman point of view, but it is carefully researched. He also wrote a number of other treatises, including 'On Imitation', 'Commentaries on the Ancient Orators', and 'On the Arrangement of Words'.
Appian and Arrian both lived in the 2nd century AD. Appian wrote on Rome and its conquests, while Arrian is remembered for his work on the campaigns of Alexander the Great. Arrian served in the Roman army. His book therefore concentrates heavily on the military aspects of Alexander's life. Arrian also wrote a philosophical treatise, the 'Diatribai', based on the teachings of his mentor Epictetus .
Best known of the late Greek historians to modern readers is Plutarch, who died about AD 119. His 'Parallel Lives' of great Greek and Roman leaders has been read by every generation since the work was first published. His other surviving work is the 'Moralia', a collection of essays on ethical, religious, political, physical, and literary topics.
Science and mathematics. Eratosthenes of Alexandria, who died about 194 BC, wrote on astronomy and geography, but his work is known mainly from later summaries. He is credited with being the first person to measure the Earth's circumference.
Much that was written by the mathematicians Euclid and Archimedes has been preserved. Euclid is known for his 'Elements', much of which was drawn from his predecessor Eudoxus of Cnidus. The 'Elements' is a treatise on geometry, and it has exerted a continuing influence on mathematics.
From Archimedes several treatises have come down to the present. Among them are 'Measurement of the Circle', in which he worked out the value of pi; 'Method Concerning Mechanical Theorems', on his work in mechanics; 'The Sand-Reckoner'; and 'On Floating Bodies'.
The physician Galen, in the history of ancient science, is the most significant person in medicine after Hippocrates, who laid the foundation of medicine in the 5th century BC. Galen lived during the 2nd century AD. He was a careful student of anatomy, and his works exerted a powerful influence on medicine for the next 1,400 years .
Strabo, who died about AD 23, was a geographer and historian. His 'Historical Sketches' in 47 volumes has nearly all been lost. His 'Geographical Sketches' remain as the only existing ancient book covering the whole range of people and countries known to the Greeks and Romans through the time of Augustus.
Pausanias, who lived in the 2nd century AD, was also a geographer. His 'Description of Greece' is an invaluable guide to what are now ancient ruins. His book takes the form of a tour of Greece, starting in Athens. The accuracy of his descriptions has been proved by archaeological excavations.
The scientist of the Roman period who had the greatest influence on later generations was undoubtedly the astronomer Ptolemy. He lived during the 2nd century AD, though little is known of his life. His masterpiece, originally entitled 'The Mathematical Collection', has come to the present under the title 'Almagest', as it was translated by Arab astronomers with that title.
It was Ptolemy who devised a detailed description of an Earth-centered universe, an erroneous notion that dominated astronomical thinking for more than 1,300 years. The Ptolemaic view of the universe endured until the early modern astronomers Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler overturned it.
The Septuagint. One of the most valuable contributions of the Hellenistic period was the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek. The work was done at Alexandria and completed by the end of the 2nd century BC. The name Septuagint means "seventy," from the tradition that there were 72 scholars who did the work. Since the language of the early Christian community was Greek, the Septuagint became its Bible. Other books not in the Hebrew Bible were also written in Greek and included what is called the Apocrypha
Philosophy. Later philosophical works were no match for Plato and Aristotle. Epictetus, who died about AD 135, was associated with the moral philosophy of the Stoics. His teachings were collected by his pupil Arrian in the 'Discourses' and the 'Encheiridion' (Manual of Study). Diogenes Laertius, who lived in the 3rd century, wrote 'Lives, Teachings, and Sayings of Famous Philosophers', a useful sourcebook. Another major philosopher was Plotinus. He, too, lived in the 3rd century. He transformed Plato's philosophy into a school called Neoplatonism. His 'Enneads' had a wide-ranging influence on European thought until at least the 17th century.
BYZANTINE LITERATURE
Constantine the Great moved the capital of the empire from Rome to Byzantium (now Istanbul) in about AD 330 and renamed the city Constantinople. The Eastern, or Byzantine, Empire lasted until it was destroyed by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 . The civilization of this empire was Greek in language and heritage, but it was Christian in religion.
In religion the crowning literary achievement was considered to be the New Testament portion of the Christian Bible. This, coupled with a reverence for the great literary traditions of the past, combined to make Byzantine literature very conservative. The written language had to preserve the forms of speech of the New Testament and the Church Fathers. Being heirs to such a great literary tradition excluded any interest in outside ideas.
This undue emphasis on form smothered any likelihood of originality and invention. The literary creations of the period have, therefore, bequeathed few memorable works to the present.
Much of the writing was necessarily religious: sermons, hymns, theological works, and descriptions of the lives of the martyrs and saints. Of the few authors who are still read may be mentioned Eusebius (died 340), who wrote the first church history; St. Basil the Great (died 379), who organized Eastern monasticism; his brother Gregory of Nyssa (died 394), who wrote many works in which he combined Platonic philosophy with Christian teaching; and Gregory of Nazianzus (died 389), who is noted for his poems, sermons, letters, and writings on theological controversies.
The writings of the historians, geographers, philosophers, scientists, and rhetoricians are read today largely as curiosities or as sources of historical information. A work such as 'Byzantine History', a 37-volume study by Nicephorus Gregoras (died 1360), for example, constitutes a valuable primary source for the 14th century.
In philosophy only Proclus (died 485) deserves mention. He was the last major Greek philosopher and was influential in spreading the ideas of Neoplatonism throughout the Mediterranean world.
The only literature that showed any real originality was that written in the vernacular, the language of the common people. This literature including poems, romances, and epics was only written from the 12th century onward. Of the epics, the most memorable is the story of Digenis Akritas, based on a historical figure who died in about 788. It presents Akritas as the ideal medieval Greek hero.
After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, Greek national life and culture ended for centuries, as did literary production. It was only revived when Greece became independent in 1829
Greek Gods
Welcome to my report on Greek gods and myths. You will learn about the gods and what they did. It is also about the myths and legends of Greece.
greek gods
The gods of Greece are alike many other types of gods. They were pictured a lot like human men and women. The Greeks didn't worship any animals. The gods, like people were endowed with many weaknesses. The gods could be jealous, envious, spiteful, and petty. The gods were held to be immortal, but they had a beginning. The rites of many gods came from Egypt. Most of the gods lived on Mt. Olympus.
the first gods
The first gods were the Titans. They were before all the other gods. The Titans were the brothers Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Cronus. Also the sisters Thea, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosye, Phobe, and Tethys.
the gods
Zeus was the strongest of all the gods. He ruled the weather by himself, and the universe with 11 other gods. Zeus was the spiritual father of the gods. He was usually armed with a thunderbolt He was also called Thunder. Hera was the wife of Zeus. She was the goddess of marriage and childbirth. She was also the queen of heaven . Poseidon was Zeus' somewhat unruly brother. He was god of the sea, of earthquakes, streams, and horses. Hesta was the sister of Zeus. She was the goddess of the household. Ares was one of Zeus' sons. He was the god of war. He loved Aphrodite. Apollo was also a son of Zeus. Apollo drove the chariot of the sun across the skies. He was the music maker of the gods and was the god of light, music, medicine, agriculture, and prophecy. He was also Known as Helios, the sun god. Hermes was the messenger of the gods and the protector of travelers who escorted the dead down to Hades. He was also a son of Zeus. Athena was Zeus' favorite daughter because she had sprung fully armed from his head when Zeus swallowed her mother, Metis. She was the goddess of wisdom and war. Frequently she was called Pallas. Artemis was the twin sister of Apollo. She was the moon goddess and also the goddess of vegetables, birth, and the hunt. She was the favorite among people. Artimes was often pictured with a stag or hunting dogs. Hades another one of Zeus' daughters was the ruler of the underworld. Later she was called Pluto. Aphrodite was the goddess of love, beauty, and fertility. Hephaestus was the only ugly god. He was the god of fire. He was skilled in craftsmanship. He forged the armor of the gods. He was patron of handicrafts and protector of blacksmiths. Demeter was the goddess of the Earth's fruits. She was the mother of Persephone the seed corn. Dionysus also Bacchus was the god of wine and intoxication. He was a nature god of fruitfulness. The female worshippers of him were called Meandads. They roamed around in a frantic drugged condition, hunting animals and devouring their raw flesh. Pan was another god. He was a half man half goat. The Fates were three old hags that were more powerful than the gods, because they knew the past, present, future. Nine goddess called Muses, were the patrons of music, poetry, dance, and literature.
heroes
The Heroes along with the gods were the characters in the myths and legends. Hercules was the strongest and mightiest of all Greek heroes. Theseus was another hero. He defeated the Minotaur. Polythemus was the hero that defeated the Cyclops. Jason got the golden fleece. Preseus defeated Medusa. Pandora was also a hero in a way. She was the one that opened the box with evil spirits and hope inside.
legends and myths
The legends of Greece were made to explain the things they didn't know about. They also wrote myths and legends for entertainment. The myths and legends had the gods and heroes as the characters. Some of the stories are Theseus and the Minotaur, Pandora's Box, Medusa and Preseus, and the story of Polythemus and the cyclops.
making of man
The Greeks believed that Prometneus was the maker of man. He made man by molding him out of clay. Then he got some of the gods together and used their powers to make man live.
death
Greek ideas about the soul and afterlife were really not exact. But it was thought apparently that the popular thought was that the soul hovered above its tomb or departed to a shadowy region were it led a melancholy existence in offerings brought by relatives. The disembodied soul was also presumed to have the power of inflicting injury on the living. Proper funeraling nights were held necessary to ensure the peace and good will of the deceased.
That was my report on the gods and myths. I hope you enjoyed learning about the myths and gods.
greek gods
The gods of Greece are alike many other types of gods. They were pictured a lot like human men and women. The Greeks didn't worship any animals. The gods, like people were endowed with many weaknesses. The gods could be jealous, envious, spiteful, and petty. The gods were held to be immortal, but they had a beginning. The rites of many gods came from Egypt. Most of the gods lived on Mt. Olympus.
the first gods
The first gods were the Titans. They were before all the other gods. The Titans were the brothers Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Cronus. Also the sisters Thea, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosye, Phobe, and Tethys.
the gods
Zeus was the strongest of all the gods. He ruled the weather by himself, and the universe with 11 other gods. Zeus was the spiritual father of the gods. He was usually armed with a thunderbolt He was also called Thunder. Hera was the wife of Zeus. She was the goddess of marriage and childbirth. She was also the queen of heaven . Poseidon was Zeus' somewhat unruly brother. He was god of the sea, of earthquakes, streams, and horses. Hesta was the sister of Zeus. She was the goddess of the household. Ares was one of Zeus' sons. He was the god of war. He loved Aphrodite. Apollo was also a son of Zeus. Apollo drove the chariot of the sun across the skies. He was the music maker of the gods and was the god of light, music, medicine, agriculture, and prophecy. He was also Known as Helios, the sun god. Hermes was the messenger of the gods and the protector of travelers who escorted the dead down to Hades. He was also a son of Zeus. Athena was Zeus' favorite daughter because she had sprung fully armed from his head when Zeus swallowed her mother, Metis. She was the goddess of wisdom and war. Frequently she was called Pallas. Artemis was the twin sister of Apollo. She was the moon goddess and also the goddess of vegetables, birth, and the hunt. She was the favorite among people. Artimes was often pictured with a stag or hunting dogs. Hades another one of Zeus' daughters was the ruler of the underworld. Later she was called Pluto. Aphrodite was the goddess of love, beauty, and fertility. Hephaestus was the only ugly god. He was the god of fire. He was skilled in craftsmanship. He forged the armor of the gods. He was patron of handicrafts and protector of blacksmiths. Demeter was the goddess of the Earth's fruits. She was the mother of Persephone the seed corn. Dionysus also Bacchus was the god of wine and intoxication. He was a nature god of fruitfulness. The female worshippers of him were called Meandads. They roamed around in a frantic drugged condition, hunting animals and devouring their raw flesh. Pan was another god. He was a half man half goat. The Fates were three old hags that were more powerful than the gods, because they knew the past, present, future. Nine goddess called Muses, were the patrons of music, poetry, dance, and literature.
heroes
The Heroes along with the gods were the characters in the myths and legends. Hercules was the strongest and mightiest of all Greek heroes. Theseus was another hero. He defeated the Minotaur. Polythemus was the hero that defeated the Cyclops. Jason got the golden fleece. Preseus defeated Medusa. Pandora was also a hero in a way. She was the one that opened the box with evil spirits and hope inside.
legends and myths
The legends of Greece were made to explain the things they didn't know about. They also wrote myths and legends for entertainment. The myths and legends had the gods and heroes as the characters. Some of the stories are Theseus and the Minotaur, Pandora's Box, Medusa and Preseus, and the story of Polythemus and the cyclops.
making of man
The Greeks believed that Prometneus was the maker of man. He made man by molding him out of clay. Then he got some of the gods together and used their powers to make man live.
death
Greek ideas about the soul and afterlife were really not exact. But it was thought apparently that the popular thought was that the soul hovered above its tomb or departed to a shadowy region were it led a melancholy existence in offerings brought by relatives. The disembodied soul was also presumed to have the power of inflicting injury on the living. Proper funeraling nights were held necessary to ensure the peace and good will of the deceased.
That was my report on the gods and myths. I hope you enjoyed learning about the myths and gods.
Greek Architecture
Greek influence is visable in everything that we have today. Our laws,
cities and even our system of goverment all come from asppects of greek
civilization, but maybe what we have been influenced the most gy the greeks
is in architecture. Maybe the reason this is, is that it was a new form of
architecture that had little to do with function and everything to do with
looks. Agood example is the Greek temple. They were built in honor of the
gods, but the architects were most likely more concerned with beauty than
function.
Unlike the Romans who used the arch to support their buildings the Greeks
used columns. their system is called the post and lintel system. This
system wasn't very efficiant and is now outdated, but in ancient times it
was the only way of building. Another thing that the Greeks are famous for
are their great theaters, where they held many plays. Some of these plays
were building blocks for moderm drama.
The greek theater was incredible. The greeks spent years of time and
effort to perfect their theater design. In their theater there were four
things that most theaters had. The orchestra, paraskenia, theatron, and
skene.
the orchestra was the stage, located in the center of the theater. unlike
many modern stages, which are raised above the seatsthe orchestra was
located below the seats. There were sometimes, but not usually, seats
located behind the orchestra.
The theatron was the audiences seating. THe theatron was raised
above the orchestra,which extended in circles. These circles were devided
by walkways which extended outward from the orchestra. The shape of the
theater allowed the actor's voices to carry without the use of modern day
equiptment. The theaters were usually cut out of hillside, meaning that
theywere usually one big piece of rock. most theaters could hold about
20000 people!
The skene was the backdrop of the stage. It had a picture of the front of
a house painted on it. Because of this, all Greek plays took place in
front of a house. The skene had windows, doorways, and arches, which
allowed many entrances into the orchestra. The rooms located behind the
skene were storage rooms for props and dressing rooms for actors.
We get the word scene from the greek word, skene.
The Paraskenias were the walls that extended away from the skene so that
the audiance could not see anything beyond the play. the paraskenia was
also sometimes built to be a high arch above the orchestra. This framed
the stage and helped keep the audiences attention.
Another thing that many theaters had was the proskenium. the proskenium
was a bunch of arches or columnsplaced above the skene. This was used to
add more layers to the stage as the scenes changed.
Greek architectureis known for its magnificent columns. Columns were used
on the outsides og buildings and were the main supports of roofs. The
three mostly used columns were the dorian , ionic, and corinthian columns.
The dorian columns were the oldest and the most comenly used. they were
first used in the seventeenth sentuary B.C. They were pretty simple and
they had a stone slab at the top and the bottom of the column seperating it
from the floor or ceiling. Dorian columns were masculine and were supposed
to represent the male body.
The Ionic columns were first used in the 16 centurart B.C. The ionic
columns were thinner and mor detailed than the dorian columns. The ionic
columns were supposed to represent femininity and were eventually full
scuptures of woman as columns.
The corinthian columns were introduced in th 14 centuary B.C. These columns
are the mostly decorated of the three columns. The tops of these columns
were sculptures of plants. They had a complicated base with many layers.
the corinthian columns symbolized life.
cities and even our system of goverment all come from asppects of greek
civilization, but maybe what we have been influenced the most gy the greeks
is in architecture. Maybe the reason this is, is that it was a new form of
architecture that had little to do with function and everything to do with
looks. Agood example is the Greek temple. They were built in honor of the
gods, but the architects were most likely more concerned with beauty than
function.
Unlike the Romans who used the arch to support their buildings the Greeks
used columns. their system is called the post and lintel system. This
system wasn't very efficiant and is now outdated, but in ancient times it
was the only way of building. Another thing that the Greeks are famous for
are their great theaters, where they held many plays. Some of these plays
were building blocks for moderm drama.
The greek theater was incredible. The greeks spent years of time and
effort to perfect their theater design. In their theater there were four
things that most theaters had. The orchestra, paraskenia, theatron, and
skene.
the orchestra was the stage, located in the center of the theater. unlike
many modern stages, which are raised above the seatsthe orchestra was
located below the seats. There were sometimes, but not usually, seats
located behind the orchestra.
The theatron was the audiences seating. THe theatron was raised
above the orchestra,which extended in circles. These circles were devided
by walkways which extended outward from the orchestra. The shape of the
theater allowed the actor's voices to carry without the use of modern day
equiptment. The theaters were usually cut out of hillside, meaning that
theywere usually one big piece of rock. most theaters could hold about
20000 people!
The skene was the backdrop of the stage. It had a picture of the front of
a house painted on it. Because of this, all Greek plays took place in
front of a house. The skene had windows, doorways, and arches, which
allowed many entrances into the orchestra. The rooms located behind the
skene were storage rooms for props and dressing rooms for actors.
We get the word scene from the greek word, skene.
The Paraskenias were the walls that extended away from the skene so that
the audiance could not see anything beyond the play. the paraskenia was
also sometimes built to be a high arch above the orchestra. This framed
the stage and helped keep the audiences attention.
Another thing that many theaters had was the proskenium. the proskenium
was a bunch of arches or columnsplaced above the skene. This was used to
add more layers to the stage as the scenes changed.
Greek architectureis known for its magnificent columns. Columns were used
on the outsides og buildings and were the main supports of roofs. The
three mostly used columns were the dorian , ionic, and corinthian columns.
The dorian columns were the oldest and the most comenly used. they were
first used in the seventeenth sentuary B.C. They were pretty simple and
they had a stone slab at the top and the bottom of the column seperating it
from the floor or ceiling. Dorian columns were masculine and were supposed
to represent the male body.
The Ionic columns were first used in the 16 centurart B.C. The ionic
columns were thinner and mor detailed than the dorian columns. The ionic
columns were supposed to represent femininity and were eventually full
scuptures of woman as columns.
The corinthian columns were introduced in th 14 centuary B.C. These columns
are the mostly decorated of the three columns. The tops of these columns
were sculptures of plants. They had a complicated base with many layers.
the corinthian columns symbolized life.
Greek and Roman Architecture
The Greeks thought of their Gods as having the same needs as human beings, they believed that the Gods needed somewhere to live on Earth. Temples were built as the gods' earthly homes. The basic design of temples developed from the royal halls of the Maycenaean Age. A Mycenaean palace consisted of a number of buildings often more than one story high, grouped around a central courtyard. It was brightly painted, both inside and out. In each palace there was a large hall called a megaron, where the king held court and conducted state business. Little remains of the megaron at Mycenae. This reconstruction is based on the remains from other palaces, which would have been similar.
The Romans took and borrowed a lot of things from the Greek culture. For example, the took the Greek Gods and renamed them. They also took the styles of Greek temples, but they changed them some. The temple was rectangular, with a gabled roof, with a frontal staircase giving access to its high platform. They used mainly the Corinthian style, but they also made combinations, for instance the Corinthian-Ionic style. The Romans also added a lot of details and decorations to their temples. The Romans also made what became the very common round, domed temple. The main temple of a Roman city was the capitolium. The Pantheon, the famous temple in Rome, was a sample for some of the modern day cathedrals and churches.
The Classical Period Temples became much larger and more elaborate. Parthenon, one of the most famous structures ever, was created during that period. The Greeks held many religious festivals in honour of their gods. The purpose of festivals was to please the gods and convince them to grant the people's wishes. Such as making the crops grow or bringing victory in war. In addition to religious events athletic competitions and theatrical performances took place at festivals too..
The early Greek architecture, from about 3000 BC to 700 BC, used mainly the post and lintel, or post and beam, system. Their main building material was marble. Classic Greek architecture is made up of three different orders that are most seen in their temples: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. All three had the same components, but had different types of details. The orders are known mostly by their column style. The Corinthian order was not as widely used as Doric and Ionic. It was fancier than the others, and had a lot more detail. The Greeks only used one order on one building, they never mixed. The basic temple followed these same rules. It was very simple with a rectangular inner chamber and a roof with shallow gables. The temple stood on a platform with three steps leaving rows of columns, sometimes double rows, that helped support the roof.
The column which was used as either a part of the structure or as an dornament, is the basic element in the Greek architecture. The oldest, dating back to about 600 B.C. is the Doric. Perhaps the most basic temples were of the Doric order. Doric architecture was known for being used by the Spartans. Normally, standing right on the floor, the shaft is made of a series of drums which are rounded, doweled together, tapered upward and fluted, usually twenty times. On top of the shaft sits a two part capital carved in a single block. The bottom is the cushion or echinus and the top is a flat square slab called the abacus. There is a natural ring where the capital and shaft meet and this is emphasized by the addition of several carved rings. The column height is four to six and on half times the diameter at the base of the shaft. The oldest Doric columns to survive intact, seven of them, are from the temple of Apollo at Corinth. Each shaft, over twenty feet high, is cut from a solid limestone block which was surfaced with a stucco made of marble dust. While the columns seem simple and stumpy, the sharp ridged fluting is evidence of a high degree of the mastery of stone carving. Further they are bellied slightly at the centre which keeps them from seeming too dumpy. The vertical columns supported beans called architraves. To form a ceiling, other beans were laid across the building with their ends on the architraves. The ends of these beams would be channelled to make triglyphs. On top of this, another beam would be placed for the overhanging rafters. These beams are referred to as mutules. The roofs were finished with flat gables called pediments. A gutter ran along the tops of the pediments, ending at a lion's mouth, which acted as a drain. Thatch, and then tera-cotta and marble, was used to cover the roofs. What is not evident today as a result of the action of wind, rain, and man made destruction, is that these temple were generally brightly painted in white, gold, red and blues. These temples were similar to ionic ones in their layout.
The Ionic column is distinguished by its volute or scroll capital. Ionic columns were slenderer than Doric. They were eight or nine diameters high, instead of four to five. Normally the Ionic column has twenty-four flutes which are separated by fillets or soft edges, some examples have as many as forty-eight flutes. The columns had a molded base under them and sculpted figures on the lover part of the shaft. The shafts had channels in them, like folds in a matron's harment. At the top of the shaft. The shafts had channels in them. At the top of the shaft there were rectangular blocks of stone, carved into the shape of flowing hair or other wavy shapes and lines. The cornice was decorated with great detail. Although there were differences in the construction of temples, they were mostly all used for the same activities.
When talking about Greek temples, there are some things one must keep in mind. First, that Greek religion is not like that of the Christian. The Greeks thought their gods were of the same nature as man, except smarter and stronger. Second, that the temple was the house of the god they worshipped, so it had to be finer than that of man. Third, that congregations of people did not meet in the temples to worship, as if it were a church. And last, that all gods demanded they be satisfied by sacrifice, and so sacrifices were made at the temples. For this there was a great altar outside the east porch of every temple. Some temples only had a porch for the altar and a hall leading to it, while others were much complicated.
The Parthenon is one temple that is very famous and beautiful, but also very basic in its construction. Built between 447 and 438 BC, it was the first building to be constructed on the widely know Acropolis. The Parthenon is called octostyle peripteral because it has eight columns in the front and the back of it and is surrounded by a colonnade or peristyle. Inside, it is constructed as most temples were. The central chamber, or cella, faced east, with a wood figure of Athene covered in gold and ivory in it. There was a pornaos, or porch, at the east end and a opisthodomus, or porch, at the west end. At the back of the temple is a chamber called the Parthenon, or chamber of the Virgin, which was used as a treasury and held the sacrifices. This layout was very common among temples of that period.
One rather famous temple that was very complicated, was The Great Palace of Knossos, also known as just Knossos. It began a town with buildings in blocks around a square, or court, and grew into an extremely large palace. The process of becoming a palace was that of the gradual condensation of all the buildings under one roof, except for the court. Even the streets were covered, making them into corridors. The layout of Knossos had long, narrow chambers on the west side, with the shrines and ceremonial rooms on that side of the court. The luxurious living spaces were at the southeast side of the court and the service rooms and some small industries were aligned with them in the northeast side. This was truly a great palace.
As we have seen there were different styles and different layouts of Greek temples, but they were used for the same thing. Also, we have seen that the Greeks made amazing buildings, that were carefully planned and skillfully created. Perhaps the architects of that day were the true geniuses of Greek culture, not the philosophers.
Roman Temples were very similar to those of the Greeks. The architecture of the Roman Empire, spanning the period from 4th century to B.C. 5 century A.D. They were built in the sacred area called temenos and were surrounded by a colonnaded walk way. There was a porch in front of the entrance where an alter was placed and sacrifices were offered. Leading up to the alter, there was a great staircase flanked with walls on both sides. Like the Greeks there were columns surrounding the temple yet these columns were usually attached to the outer walls of the temple instead of the interior being open.
Inside the temple there was a single room called the cella, decorated with coloured marbles. Alcoves had been cut into the walls where statues could be placed. In some cases, a statue of the god that the temple was dedicated to was placed on a raised platform at the end of the cella.
In contrast to the linear emphasis of Greek architecture, Roman architecture is noted for its development of the rounded form. The Romans' mastery of concrete, used in combination with bricks, freed the orders from rounded forms as the arch, vault, and dome. Arches and vaults were first employed in utilitarian structures, for example, bridges and aqueducts. Later they were used, together with the dome, in private and public buildings as a means of extending and diversifying the interior space.
Roman building types include the basilica, an oblong meeting hall with vaulted roof, often colonnaded, the thermae or bath houses with their complex spatial layout, and the triumphal arch, a purely ornamental structure. Rome has the richest collection of public building, especially the Pantheon, built between 27 BC and A.D. 124, with its enormous concrete dome. It was originally built by Marcus Agrippa but was later rebuilt by Emperor Hadrian. The name "Pantheon" means all gods for this building was dedicated to seven different dieties. The temple stands at on end of a large colonnaded courtyard and has a normal portico (porch) in the front. Inside, the cella is round with a diameter of 140 ft. the floor is laid with coloured marble and statues of all seven gods line the walls. There are two specials places of honour for Venus and Mars, the protecting dieties of Agripa's family. At the top of the dome is a circular opening called an oculus which provides the only light.
Other Roman buildings are the Colosseum A.D. 70-80, numerous temples, and thermae such as those of Caracall, about A.D. 215 onwards. The ruins of Pompeii at the foot of Mount Vesuvius provide the most complete view of a Roman city, which was typically planned as a series of interlinked public spaces. Dwellings tend to look inwards towards an open atrium (inner court) and peristyle (colonnade surrounding the court).
Other important monuments outside Rome include the amphitheatre in Verona, about A.D. 290, and Hadrian's villa at Tivoli, about A.D. 118-134. The Hadrian's villa shows examples of axial symmetry, its use of curved as well as rectilinear interior spaces, and its numerous vistas. Other monuments in the Roman Empire are the beautifully preserved temple known as the Maison Carree in Nimes, France, 16 BC; the aqueduct, the Pont du Gard, near Nimes, about 14 BC; the Diocletian's Palace in Split, Croatia, 300 BC.
Greek temples, with their simple style, had three different, refined architectural styles which were best illustrated in the Parthenon. Rome then took that style and expanded it for their own temples, adding details, arches and domes. They then used those techniques to make churches later in their history, many of which have survived to today. In fact, those styles are still used.
The Romans took and borrowed a lot of things from the Greek culture. For example, the took the Greek Gods and renamed them. They also took the styles of Greek temples, but they changed them some. The temple was rectangular, with a gabled roof, with a frontal staircase giving access to its high platform. They used mainly the Corinthian style, but they also made combinations, for instance the Corinthian-Ionic style. The Romans also added a lot of details and decorations to their temples. The Romans also made what became the very common round, domed temple. The main temple of a Roman city was the capitolium. The Pantheon, the famous temple in Rome, was a sample for some of the modern day cathedrals and churches.
The Classical Period Temples became much larger and more elaborate. Parthenon, one of the most famous structures ever, was created during that period. The Greeks held many religious festivals in honour of their gods. The purpose of festivals was to please the gods and convince them to grant the people's wishes. Such as making the crops grow or bringing victory in war. In addition to religious events athletic competitions and theatrical performances took place at festivals too..
The early Greek architecture, from about 3000 BC to 700 BC, used mainly the post and lintel, or post and beam, system. Their main building material was marble. Classic Greek architecture is made up of three different orders that are most seen in their temples: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. All three had the same components, but had different types of details. The orders are known mostly by their column style. The Corinthian order was not as widely used as Doric and Ionic. It was fancier than the others, and had a lot more detail. The Greeks only used one order on one building, they never mixed. The basic temple followed these same rules. It was very simple with a rectangular inner chamber and a roof with shallow gables. The temple stood on a platform with three steps leaving rows of columns, sometimes double rows, that helped support the roof.
The column which was used as either a part of the structure or as an dornament, is the basic element in the Greek architecture. The oldest, dating back to about 600 B.C. is the Doric. Perhaps the most basic temples were of the Doric order. Doric architecture was known for being used by the Spartans. Normally, standing right on the floor, the shaft is made of a series of drums which are rounded, doweled together, tapered upward and fluted, usually twenty times. On top of the shaft sits a two part capital carved in a single block. The bottom is the cushion or echinus and the top is a flat square slab called the abacus. There is a natural ring where the capital and shaft meet and this is emphasized by the addition of several carved rings. The column height is four to six and on half times the diameter at the base of the shaft. The oldest Doric columns to survive intact, seven of them, are from the temple of Apollo at Corinth. Each shaft, over twenty feet high, is cut from a solid limestone block which was surfaced with a stucco made of marble dust. While the columns seem simple and stumpy, the sharp ridged fluting is evidence of a high degree of the mastery of stone carving. Further they are bellied slightly at the centre which keeps them from seeming too dumpy. The vertical columns supported beans called architraves. To form a ceiling, other beans were laid across the building with their ends on the architraves. The ends of these beams would be channelled to make triglyphs. On top of this, another beam would be placed for the overhanging rafters. These beams are referred to as mutules. The roofs were finished with flat gables called pediments. A gutter ran along the tops of the pediments, ending at a lion's mouth, which acted as a drain. Thatch, and then tera-cotta and marble, was used to cover the roofs. What is not evident today as a result of the action of wind, rain, and man made destruction, is that these temple were generally brightly painted in white, gold, red and blues. These temples were similar to ionic ones in their layout.
The Ionic column is distinguished by its volute or scroll capital. Ionic columns were slenderer than Doric. They were eight or nine diameters high, instead of four to five. Normally the Ionic column has twenty-four flutes which are separated by fillets or soft edges, some examples have as many as forty-eight flutes. The columns had a molded base under them and sculpted figures on the lover part of the shaft. The shafts had channels in them, like folds in a matron's harment. At the top of the shaft. The shafts had channels in them. At the top of the shaft there were rectangular blocks of stone, carved into the shape of flowing hair or other wavy shapes and lines. The cornice was decorated with great detail. Although there were differences in the construction of temples, they were mostly all used for the same activities.
When talking about Greek temples, there are some things one must keep in mind. First, that Greek religion is not like that of the Christian. The Greeks thought their gods were of the same nature as man, except smarter and stronger. Second, that the temple was the house of the god they worshipped, so it had to be finer than that of man. Third, that congregations of people did not meet in the temples to worship, as if it were a church. And last, that all gods demanded they be satisfied by sacrifice, and so sacrifices were made at the temples. For this there was a great altar outside the east porch of every temple. Some temples only had a porch for the altar and a hall leading to it, while others were much complicated.
The Parthenon is one temple that is very famous and beautiful, but also very basic in its construction. Built between 447 and 438 BC, it was the first building to be constructed on the widely know Acropolis. The Parthenon is called octostyle peripteral because it has eight columns in the front and the back of it and is surrounded by a colonnade or peristyle. Inside, it is constructed as most temples were. The central chamber, or cella, faced east, with a wood figure of Athene covered in gold and ivory in it. There was a pornaos, or porch, at the east end and a opisthodomus, or porch, at the west end. At the back of the temple is a chamber called the Parthenon, or chamber of the Virgin, which was used as a treasury and held the sacrifices. This layout was very common among temples of that period.
One rather famous temple that was very complicated, was The Great Palace of Knossos, also known as just Knossos. It began a town with buildings in blocks around a square, or court, and grew into an extremely large palace. The process of becoming a palace was that of the gradual condensation of all the buildings under one roof, except for the court. Even the streets were covered, making them into corridors. The layout of Knossos had long, narrow chambers on the west side, with the shrines and ceremonial rooms on that side of the court. The luxurious living spaces were at the southeast side of the court and the service rooms and some small industries were aligned with them in the northeast side. This was truly a great palace.
As we have seen there were different styles and different layouts of Greek temples, but they were used for the same thing. Also, we have seen that the Greeks made amazing buildings, that were carefully planned and skillfully created. Perhaps the architects of that day were the true geniuses of Greek culture, not the philosophers.
Roman Temples were very similar to those of the Greeks. The architecture of the Roman Empire, spanning the period from 4th century to B.C. 5 century A.D. They were built in the sacred area called temenos and were surrounded by a colonnaded walk way. There was a porch in front of the entrance where an alter was placed and sacrifices were offered. Leading up to the alter, there was a great staircase flanked with walls on both sides. Like the Greeks there were columns surrounding the temple yet these columns were usually attached to the outer walls of the temple instead of the interior being open.
Inside the temple there was a single room called the cella, decorated with coloured marbles. Alcoves had been cut into the walls where statues could be placed. In some cases, a statue of the god that the temple was dedicated to was placed on a raised platform at the end of the cella.
In contrast to the linear emphasis of Greek architecture, Roman architecture is noted for its development of the rounded form. The Romans' mastery of concrete, used in combination with bricks, freed the orders from rounded forms as the arch, vault, and dome. Arches and vaults were first employed in utilitarian structures, for example, bridges and aqueducts. Later they were used, together with the dome, in private and public buildings as a means of extending and diversifying the interior space.
Roman building types include the basilica, an oblong meeting hall with vaulted roof, often colonnaded, the thermae or bath houses with their complex spatial layout, and the triumphal arch, a purely ornamental structure. Rome has the richest collection of public building, especially the Pantheon, built between 27 BC and A.D. 124, with its enormous concrete dome. It was originally built by Marcus Agrippa but was later rebuilt by Emperor Hadrian. The name "Pantheon" means all gods for this building was dedicated to seven different dieties. The temple stands at on end of a large colonnaded courtyard and has a normal portico (porch) in the front. Inside, the cella is round with a diameter of 140 ft. the floor is laid with coloured marble and statues of all seven gods line the walls. There are two specials places of honour for Venus and Mars, the protecting dieties of Agripa's family. At the top of the dome is a circular opening called an oculus which provides the only light.
Other Roman buildings are the Colosseum A.D. 70-80, numerous temples, and thermae such as those of Caracall, about A.D. 215 onwards. The ruins of Pompeii at the foot of Mount Vesuvius provide the most complete view of a Roman city, which was typically planned as a series of interlinked public spaces. Dwellings tend to look inwards towards an open atrium (inner court) and peristyle (colonnade surrounding the court).
Other important monuments outside Rome include the amphitheatre in Verona, about A.D. 290, and Hadrian's villa at Tivoli, about A.D. 118-134. The Hadrian's villa shows examples of axial symmetry, its use of curved as well as rectilinear interior spaces, and its numerous vistas. Other monuments in the Roman Empire are the beautifully preserved temple known as the Maison Carree in Nimes, France, 16 BC; the aqueduct, the Pont du Gard, near Nimes, about 14 BC; the Diocletian's Palace in Split, Croatia, 300 BC.
Greek temples, with their simple style, had three different, refined architectural styles which were best illustrated in the Parthenon. Rome then took that style and expanded it for their own temples, adding details, arches and domes. They then used those techniques to make churches later in their history, many of which have survived to today. In fact, those styles are still used.
Gladiators of Ancient RomeGreece
The Rise of Gladiatorial Combat
Gladiatorial contests (munera gladitoria), hold a central place in our perception of Roman behavior. They were also a big influence on how Romans themselves ordered their lives. Attending the games was one of the practices that went with being a Roman. The Etruscans who introduced this type of contest in the sixth century BC, are credited with its development but its the Romans who made it famous. A surviving feature of the Roman games was when a gladiator fell he was hauled out of the arena by a slave dressed as the Etruscan death-demon Charun. The slave would carry a hammer which was the demon's attribute. Moreover, the Latin term for a trainer-manager of gladiators (lanista), was believed to be an Etruscan word. (4:50) Gladiators of Ancient Rome lived their lives to the absolute fullest.
Gladiatorial duels had originated from funeral games given in order to satisfy the dead man's need for blood, and for centuries their principle occasions were funerals. The first gladiatorial combats therefore, took place at the graves of those being honored, but once they became public spectacles they moved into amphitheaters. (2:83) As for the gladiators themselves, an aura of religious sacrifice continued to hang about their combats. Obviously most spectators just enjoyed the massacre without any remorseful reflections. Even ancient writers felt no pity, they were aware that gladiators had originated from these holocausts in honor of the dead. What was offered to appease the dead was counted as a funeral rite. It is called munus (a service) from being a service due. The ancients thought that by this sort of spectacle they rendered a service to the dead, after they had made it a more cultured form of cruelty. The belief was that the souls of the dead are appeased with human blood, they use to sacrifice captives or slaves of poor quality at funerals. Afterwards it seemed good to obscure their impiety by making it a pleasure. (6:170) So after the acquired person had been trained to fight as best they can, their training was to learn to be killed! For such reasons gladiators were sometimes known as bustuarii or funeral men. Throughout many centuries of Roman history, these commemorations of the dead were still among the principle occasions for such combats. Men writing their wills often made provisions for gladiatorial duels in connection with their funerals. Early in the first century AD, the people of Pollentia forcibly prevented the burial of an official, until his heirs had been compelled to provide money for a gladiators' show. (1:174)
It was in Campania and Lucania that the gladiatorial games came to their full development and took on their classical form. In these new surroundings they took root and flourished, as can be seen in fourth century BC, tomb paintings. These pictures show helmeted gladiators carrying shields and lances, covered with wounds and dripping with blood. (2:84) For Rome a decisive moment in gladiatorial history was reached in 246 BC, the year when the first Punic War began. At the funeral of Brutus Pera, his two sons for the first time exhibited, in the cattle market, three simultaneous gladiatorial combats. By 216 BC the number of fights given on a single occasion had risen to twenty two.(14:16) In 105 BC the two consuls of the year made gladiatorial games official. There were no doubts of religious tendency, but the purpose of Roman spectacles, were a public display of power, that power was primarily military, and also to compensate the soft Greek culture which now was abroad. (8:98)
The Gladiators
Those compelled to fight gladiator duels included prisoners of war, slaves and condemned criminals. Among them were numerous followers of the new Christian faith. During this time persecution fell heavily on their faith, many won immortal fame as martyrs. Fighting in the arena was one of the sentences earned by the sacrilege accused against members of the Christian religion because of their refusal to sacrifice to the emperor. It was written that these Christians were forced, as gladiatorial novices to run the gauntlet. At other times they were thrown to the wild beasts. Criminals that were used had committed crimes that carried a death sentence or harsh manual labor. The crimes which led to the arena were murder, treason, robbery and arson. Criminals sentenced to forced labor were often obliged to serve as gladiators, and were sentenced to three years of combat and two years in the schools. Sometimes penalties were differentiated according to social class, thus for certain crimes which in the case of slaves would involve execution, free men or freedmen (ex-slaves) were condemned to fight in the arena instead. This did not of course make them gladiators, unless they were trained first, as those required to provide this sort of sport not always were. And indeed as gladiators became more expensive in the second century AD the use of untrained criminals in the amphitheater increased.(7:537) Most gladiators, at Rome and elsewhere were slaves, but in addition there were always some free men who became gladiators because they wanted to. The profession was an alternative to being a social outcast. They were generally derived from the lowest ranking category of free persons, namely the freedman who had themselves been slaves or were the son of slaves. Free fighters were more sought after than slaves, presumably because they shower greater enthusiasm in the arena. Such a volunteer was offered a bonus if he survived the term of his contract, yet he still had to swear the terrible oath of submission to be burnt with fire, shackled with chains, whipped with rods and killed with steel like the rest of the gladiators. For the period of his engagement, he had become no more than a slave. (7:539)
Majestic Exhibitions and Schools
There seemed no end to public entertainment's of one sort or another at Rome. First there were the regular functions. The number of days in each year given up to annual games and spectacles of one sort or another in the city was startlingly large, and increased continually. Already 66 in the time of Augustus, it had risen to 135 under Marcus Aurelius, and 175 or more in the fourth century. Gladiatorial amusement had become an essential feature of the services a ruler had to provide, in order to maintain his popularity and his job. Emperors themselves had to attend the shows. Emperors watching the shows were distinct, vulnerable, and subject to public pressures which could not be displayed elsewhere. That was why the games were not popular with a few rulers such as Marcus Aurelius. He directed that if a gladiator was freed as a result of popular outcry in the amphitheater the liberation was to be annulled. Aurelius found the sport boring and indeed he was unenthusiastic about Roman entertainment in general. (10:87)
The teaching of gladiators was highly elaborate affair involving expertise appreciated by those members of the public who attended the games for something more than blood and thrills. Gladiators were trained at gladiator schools established during the late Republic at the time of Sulla 138-78 BC. (2:86) Novices practiced with wooden swords on a man of straw or a wooden post. The weapons used in more adept practice were heavier than those used in the arena. Discipline was severe, with ruthless punishments. The barracks they lived in were so low inmates could only sit or lie.(3:68) Breaking any rules was not tolerated and resulted in strict reprimanding: shackles, flogging or even death. (2:86) The main objective of the schools were to produce the best possible fighters for the arena, thus scrupulous attention was invested in gladiator health. Their schools were situated in favorable climates, and equipped with first class doctors. The schools were also provided with resident medical consultants to check the men's diet. Gladiators were called hordearii, barley men, because of the amount of barley that they ate, a muscle building food. (12:111)
The Types of Gladiators
From Republican times onward, foreign prisoners were made to fight with their own weapons and in their own styles. Many of these men, were merely prisoners herded into the arena, but various classes of professional gladiators likewise came from this category. Such, for example was the origin of the gladiators known as the Samnites. Generally regarded as the prototypes of all Rome's gladiators, they are said to have come into existence after its Samnite enemies introduced a splendid new type of military equipment in 310 BC. Gladiators were ranked in different categories according to their fighting style and the type of weapon they used. These Samnites wore the heavy, magnificent armor of soldiers. It included a large shield (scutum), a leather or partly metal greave (ocrea) on the left leg, and a visored helmet (galea) with huge crests and plumes. To these were added sword (gladius) or lance (hasta), and the sleeve on the right arm which was part of a gladiators general equipment.(11:121) Sectores were armed with a sword and mace loaded with lead. Thraces carried a curved scimitar of varying shape, and a small square or round shield. Myrmilliones ('Guals') carried a shield and a short scythe and wore a distinctive fish ornament on their helmets. The Retiarii were exceptionally uncovered, except sometimes for a head band. They carried a trident in one hand and a net in the other. Because the throwing of a net as a method of combat, was second rate the Retarii were inferior in status to the ranks, and thus had the worst living quarters. (2:86) The Myrmillo could fight against the Thracian or against the Retiarius or net fighter. But the principle opponent of the Retiarius was the Secutor.(12:109)
The Procedure of the Arena
Gladiatorial shows were intensively promoted and advertised to raise public attention. Descriptions of upcoming contests, appeared on walls and on the grave stones beside main roads. The opening ceremonies began the day before the fights. It was then that the supporter of the show donated a splendid feast to the contestants about to appear on the following day. The proceedings of the murderous day began with a chariot drive and parade. Led and presented by the sponsor of the games. The gladiators displayed themselves in uniforms topped by cloaks dyed purple with gold embroidery. Climbing down their chariots, they marched around the arena, followed by slaves carrying their arms and armor. Gladiators, especially those who belonged to the emperor's own troop, were often finely equipped. When the combatants arrived opposite the emperor's platform, they extended their right hands towards him and cried 'Hail, emperor, greetings from men about to die!' (Ave, imperator, morituri te salutant!) (7:538)
The games often opened with a convicted criminal being thrown to a lion. The criminal was given a small sword, and if he could kill the lion his life was spared. Another way in which they opened the games was to tie the criminal to a pillar and lower him into a pit of hungry beasts. After these morbid killings took place, the animal events would take center stage. The most common of these fights would be a lion against bear. To make the beast ready for fighting they would starved the animals and poked them with sticks while in the cage.(5:17) These events were followed by a break, during this break Gladiatores Meridiane took place. This event consisted of a fully armed gladiator against an unarmed man. The object was simple, to kill your opponent, the winner went on to fight the next combatant. The overall winner was the person that was standing in the end.(2:88) The afternoon brought about the beginning of the gladiatorial events. Staged with a dramatic sense of climax, the afternoon started with second rate displays that were bloodless. These mock fighters were called paegniarii.(1:176) After these mock battles came the real fights, the tamest of these would be the hand to hand combats with one opponent. However, most of the contests were worst, ranging from armed fighters against unarmed, two criminals versus a gladiator, and even a group of gladiators versus another group.
While the fighters were at grips, their trainers (lanista) stood beside them and hounded them on much like a modern boxers trainer would. Meanwhile the crowd shouted commands of their own including beat, kill and burn. When a man fell, the herald raised their trumpets, and spectators yelled 'Got him! He's had it!' (habet, hoc habet). The fallen fighter if he was in a state to move, laid down his shield, and raised one finger of his left hand for mercy. The decision whether his life should be spared, rested with the provider of the games, but he generally let the crowd make the decision. Thumbs up, and a waving of handkerchiefs, meant his life would be spared, thumbs down and he would be killed without hesitation. While African boys raked over the bloodstained sand, fallen gladiators were taken away. A Charon would verify the gladiators death and finish him off it was necessary. The costumes of the Charon were designed to look like Mercury, divine guide of dead men's souls to the infernal regions.(10:167)
If a fighter's performance had not given satisfaction, or if he was a criminal whose survival was not desired, his life was sometimes risked again on the same day by orders for a repeat performance, against specially introduced understudies. When neither party won and both were spared, each was described as stans missus, and such a result was often recorded on inscriptions. The victorious gladiators were presented with palm branches as a prize, and in Greek lands of the Empire they were given a wreath or crown in addition or instead. Both palms and crowns are often shown on funeral monuments. The giver of the games also provided prize money, according to scales stipulated in the gladiators' contracts. (10:169)
The Arenas
In early times gladiators' duels took place in whatever public places a town might posses. But then , under the emperors, the characteristic place for such a contest was the amphitheater. This was an oval auditorium surrounded by rows of seats facing on to the arena, as in modern bull rings, absorbing the blood of slaughtered men and beasts. The first permanent amphitheater known to us is not in Rome but in Campania, the country which inherited the gladiatorial games from Eturia and passed them on to the Romans. (13:225) The largest and most famous of all such buildings was initiated by the Flavian dynasty. Opened by Titus in AD 80, this Colosseum is one of the most marvelous buildings in the world. Its massive overall measurements are 187 by 155 meters, of which the space for the arena itself comprises 86 by 54 meters. There was accommodation for perhaps 45,000 sitting spectators and at least 5,000 more willing to stand. Underneath the arena is a labyrinth of passages for stage effects, pens for wild beasts, storage rooms and the mechanism by which scenery and other apparatus were hoisted into the arena. The emperor's platform was at the center of one of the long sides, facing across to the portion of the auditorium reserved for magistrates and the holder of the games. There were also places for priests, who also attended these bloodthirsty sports. (13:227) The formula of the collosseum helped to mold renaissance styles. In the eight century they said that:
As long as it stands,
Rome will stand;
when it falls, Rome will fall;
when Rome falls, the world will fall
The colosseum has often been raided, but has never fallen. It has been made to serve many purposes, many of which are ironic. These have included sacred occasions, church services, and plays. Thus through all the depredation the colosseum has faced over the years inside and outside of the arena, this indestructible building still towers over the city today. (13:230)
The Gladiator in Society
The reputation of gladiators in the eyes of the public was curiously mixed. For one thing they were feared. Society was never able to forget for very long that the gladiators were a potential danger to society. So, of course were the masses of slaves in general, and that is why their crimes were so savagely punished, if one slaved murdered his master, the whole household had to die. But by training the gladiators they spared the rest of the slaves family, and forced him to fight for his life in front of the community he violated. Moreover their legal and moral position in the community was one of complete shame. When a gladiator was killed, his corpse was not permitted honorable to be buried, unless it was claimed by his family or a friend. (9:91)
However there is ample proof of the admiration and indeed excitement that the gladiators aroused. Gladiators became so ingrained in the Roman mind and soul that they believed in superstitions that resulted from munera. It was believed that the warm blood of a slaughtered gladiator would cure epilepsy. When newly married women, parted their hair with a gladiators spear, it brought good luck if this had belonged to a man mortally wounded in the arena. (8:276) Gladiators were also seen highly upon by women, graffiti at the Pompeii amphitheater reveal that members of the profession were loved with the passionate infatuation which teenage females have for pop singers today. Although gladiators lived relatively short lives it was possible to win liberation and retire on receipt of the symbolical wooden sword (rudis). It was also noted that some ex-gladiators moved upwards into respectable smart circles of local bourgeoisie's (9:96)
Opposition and Abolition
It was probably assumed that the munera would go on forever, and that nothing would stop their growth. With the rise of Christianity a religious presence lingered about such contests once again. The Roman ruling classes began to view these contest with a favorable eye. The excuse of encouragement to warlike toughness continued to be put forward until the eve of the Middle Ages, although it started to become lame and inhumane. Another purpose present in the minds of Rome's rulers was the desire that potentially unruly and dangerous city population should be amused and kept quiet. They should be given entertainment that they wanted, no matter how disgusting if might be.
The games gradually lost its original intentions and connections to the earlier funeral games. Once defenseless human beings are thrown to wild animals, the original purpose is lost, the purpose now is blood-thirsty spectators viewing inhumane, unjust executions. (2:87) The new religion however ended them for good. With the rise of emperor Constantine and Christianity came the fall of the gladiatorial spectacles. In AD 326, Constantine abolished gladiators' games altogether. He also stated that all criminals who would have in the past have been enrolled for the
games must in the future be condemned to forced labor in the mines instead. By the end of the fourth century, gladiatorial shows had disappeared from the Eastern Empire. (2:87)
Bibliography
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Gladiatorial contests (munera gladitoria), hold a central place in our perception of Roman behavior. They were also a big influence on how Romans themselves ordered their lives. Attending the games was one of the practices that went with being a Roman. The Etruscans who introduced this type of contest in the sixth century BC, are credited with its development but its the Romans who made it famous. A surviving feature of the Roman games was when a gladiator fell he was hauled out of the arena by a slave dressed as the Etruscan death-demon Charun. The slave would carry a hammer which was the demon's attribute. Moreover, the Latin term for a trainer-manager of gladiators (lanista), was believed to be an Etruscan word. (4:50) Gladiators of Ancient Rome lived their lives to the absolute fullest.
Gladiatorial duels had originated from funeral games given in order to satisfy the dead man's need for blood, and for centuries their principle occasions were funerals. The first gladiatorial combats therefore, took place at the graves of those being honored, but once they became public spectacles they moved into amphitheaters. (2:83) As for the gladiators themselves, an aura of religious sacrifice continued to hang about their combats. Obviously most spectators just enjoyed the massacre without any remorseful reflections. Even ancient writers felt no pity, they were aware that gladiators had originated from these holocausts in honor of the dead. What was offered to appease the dead was counted as a funeral rite. It is called munus (a service) from being a service due. The ancients thought that by this sort of spectacle they rendered a service to the dead, after they had made it a more cultured form of cruelty. The belief was that the souls of the dead are appeased with human blood, they use to sacrifice captives or slaves of poor quality at funerals. Afterwards it seemed good to obscure their impiety by making it a pleasure. (6:170) So after the acquired person had been trained to fight as best they can, their training was to learn to be killed! For such reasons gladiators were sometimes known as bustuarii or funeral men. Throughout many centuries of Roman history, these commemorations of the dead were still among the principle occasions for such combats. Men writing their wills often made provisions for gladiatorial duels in connection with their funerals. Early in the first century AD, the people of Pollentia forcibly prevented the burial of an official, until his heirs had been compelled to provide money for a gladiators' show. (1:174)
It was in Campania and Lucania that the gladiatorial games came to their full development and took on their classical form. In these new surroundings they took root and flourished, as can be seen in fourth century BC, tomb paintings. These pictures show helmeted gladiators carrying shields and lances, covered with wounds and dripping with blood. (2:84) For Rome a decisive moment in gladiatorial history was reached in 246 BC, the year when the first Punic War began. At the funeral of Brutus Pera, his two sons for the first time exhibited, in the cattle market, three simultaneous gladiatorial combats. By 216 BC the number of fights given on a single occasion had risen to twenty two.(14:16) In 105 BC the two consuls of the year made gladiatorial games official. There were no doubts of religious tendency, but the purpose of Roman spectacles, were a public display of power, that power was primarily military, and also to compensate the soft Greek culture which now was abroad. (8:98)
The Gladiators
Those compelled to fight gladiator duels included prisoners of war, slaves and condemned criminals. Among them were numerous followers of the new Christian faith. During this time persecution fell heavily on their faith, many won immortal fame as martyrs. Fighting in the arena was one of the sentences earned by the sacrilege accused against members of the Christian religion because of their refusal to sacrifice to the emperor. It was written that these Christians were forced, as gladiatorial novices to run the gauntlet. At other times they were thrown to the wild beasts. Criminals that were used had committed crimes that carried a death sentence or harsh manual labor. The crimes which led to the arena were murder, treason, robbery and arson. Criminals sentenced to forced labor were often obliged to serve as gladiators, and were sentenced to three years of combat and two years in the schools. Sometimes penalties were differentiated according to social class, thus for certain crimes which in the case of slaves would involve execution, free men or freedmen (ex-slaves) were condemned to fight in the arena instead. This did not of course make them gladiators, unless they were trained first, as those required to provide this sort of sport not always were. And indeed as gladiators became more expensive in the second century AD the use of untrained criminals in the amphitheater increased.(7:537) Most gladiators, at Rome and elsewhere were slaves, but in addition there were always some free men who became gladiators because they wanted to. The profession was an alternative to being a social outcast. They were generally derived from the lowest ranking category of free persons, namely the freedman who had themselves been slaves or were the son of slaves. Free fighters were more sought after than slaves, presumably because they shower greater enthusiasm in the arena. Such a volunteer was offered a bonus if he survived the term of his contract, yet he still had to swear the terrible oath of submission to be burnt with fire, shackled with chains, whipped with rods and killed with steel like the rest of the gladiators. For the period of his engagement, he had become no more than a slave. (7:539)
Majestic Exhibitions and Schools
There seemed no end to public entertainment's of one sort or another at Rome. First there were the regular functions. The number of days in each year given up to annual games and spectacles of one sort or another in the city was startlingly large, and increased continually. Already 66 in the time of Augustus, it had risen to 135 under Marcus Aurelius, and 175 or more in the fourth century. Gladiatorial amusement had become an essential feature of the services a ruler had to provide, in order to maintain his popularity and his job. Emperors themselves had to attend the shows. Emperors watching the shows were distinct, vulnerable, and subject to public pressures which could not be displayed elsewhere. That was why the games were not popular with a few rulers such as Marcus Aurelius. He directed that if a gladiator was freed as a result of popular outcry in the amphitheater the liberation was to be annulled. Aurelius found the sport boring and indeed he was unenthusiastic about Roman entertainment in general. (10:87)
The teaching of gladiators was highly elaborate affair involving expertise appreciated by those members of the public who attended the games for something more than blood and thrills. Gladiators were trained at gladiator schools established during the late Republic at the time of Sulla 138-78 BC. (2:86) Novices practiced with wooden swords on a man of straw or a wooden post. The weapons used in more adept practice were heavier than those used in the arena. Discipline was severe, with ruthless punishments. The barracks they lived in were so low inmates could only sit or lie.(3:68) Breaking any rules was not tolerated and resulted in strict reprimanding: shackles, flogging or even death. (2:86) The main objective of the schools were to produce the best possible fighters for the arena, thus scrupulous attention was invested in gladiator health. Their schools were situated in favorable climates, and equipped with first class doctors. The schools were also provided with resident medical consultants to check the men's diet. Gladiators were called hordearii, barley men, because of the amount of barley that they ate, a muscle building food. (12:111)
The Types of Gladiators
From Republican times onward, foreign prisoners were made to fight with their own weapons and in their own styles. Many of these men, were merely prisoners herded into the arena, but various classes of professional gladiators likewise came from this category. Such, for example was the origin of the gladiators known as the Samnites. Generally regarded as the prototypes of all Rome's gladiators, they are said to have come into existence after its Samnite enemies introduced a splendid new type of military equipment in 310 BC. Gladiators were ranked in different categories according to their fighting style and the type of weapon they used. These Samnites wore the heavy, magnificent armor of soldiers. It included a large shield (scutum), a leather or partly metal greave (ocrea) on the left leg, and a visored helmet (galea) with huge crests and plumes. To these were added sword (gladius) or lance (hasta), and the sleeve on the right arm which was part of a gladiators general equipment.(11:121) Sectores were armed with a sword and mace loaded with lead. Thraces carried a curved scimitar of varying shape, and a small square or round shield. Myrmilliones ('Guals') carried a shield and a short scythe and wore a distinctive fish ornament on their helmets. The Retiarii were exceptionally uncovered, except sometimes for a head band. They carried a trident in one hand and a net in the other. Because the throwing of a net as a method of combat, was second rate the Retarii were inferior in status to the ranks, and thus had the worst living quarters. (2:86) The Myrmillo could fight against the Thracian or against the Retiarius or net fighter. But the principle opponent of the Retiarius was the Secutor.(12:109)
The Procedure of the Arena
Gladiatorial shows were intensively promoted and advertised to raise public attention. Descriptions of upcoming contests, appeared on walls and on the grave stones beside main roads. The opening ceremonies began the day before the fights. It was then that the supporter of the show donated a splendid feast to the contestants about to appear on the following day. The proceedings of the murderous day began with a chariot drive and parade. Led and presented by the sponsor of the games. The gladiators displayed themselves in uniforms topped by cloaks dyed purple with gold embroidery. Climbing down their chariots, they marched around the arena, followed by slaves carrying their arms and armor. Gladiators, especially those who belonged to the emperor's own troop, were often finely equipped. When the combatants arrived opposite the emperor's platform, they extended their right hands towards him and cried 'Hail, emperor, greetings from men about to die!' (Ave, imperator, morituri te salutant!) (7:538)
The games often opened with a convicted criminal being thrown to a lion. The criminal was given a small sword, and if he could kill the lion his life was spared. Another way in which they opened the games was to tie the criminal to a pillar and lower him into a pit of hungry beasts. After these morbid killings took place, the animal events would take center stage. The most common of these fights would be a lion against bear. To make the beast ready for fighting they would starved the animals and poked them with sticks while in the cage.(5:17) These events were followed by a break, during this break Gladiatores Meridiane took place. This event consisted of a fully armed gladiator against an unarmed man. The object was simple, to kill your opponent, the winner went on to fight the next combatant. The overall winner was the person that was standing in the end.(2:88) The afternoon brought about the beginning of the gladiatorial events. Staged with a dramatic sense of climax, the afternoon started with second rate displays that were bloodless. These mock fighters were called paegniarii.(1:176) After these mock battles came the real fights, the tamest of these would be the hand to hand combats with one opponent. However, most of the contests were worst, ranging from armed fighters against unarmed, two criminals versus a gladiator, and even a group of gladiators versus another group.
While the fighters were at grips, their trainers (lanista) stood beside them and hounded them on much like a modern boxers trainer would. Meanwhile the crowd shouted commands of their own including beat, kill and burn. When a man fell, the herald raised their trumpets, and spectators yelled 'Got him! He's had it!' (habet, hoc habet). The fallen fighter if he was in a state to move, laid down his shield, and raised one finger of his left hand for mercy. The decision whether his life should be spared, rested with the provider of the games, but he generally let the crowd make the decision. Thumbs up, and a waving of handkerchiefs, meant his life would be spared, thumbs down and he would be killed without hesitation. While African boys raked over the bloodstained sand, fallen gladiators were taken away. A Charon would verify the gladiators death and finish him off it was necessary. The costumes of the Charon were designed to look like Mercury, divine guide of dead men's souls to the infernal regions.(10:167)
If a fighter's performance had not given satisfaction, or if he was a criminal whose survival was not desired, his life was sometimes risked again on the same day by orders for a repeat performance, against specially introduced understudies. When neither party won and both were spared, each was described as stans missus, and such a result was often recorded on inscriptions. The victorious gladiators were presented with palm branches as a prize, and in Greek lands of the Empire they were given a wreath or crown in addition or instead. Both palms and crowns are often shown on funeral monuments. The giver of the games also provided prize money, according to scales stipulated in the gladiators' contracts. (10:169)
The Arenas
In early times gladiators' duels took place in whatever public places a town might posses. But then , under the emperors, the characteristic place for such a contest was the amphitheater. This was an oval auditorium surrounded by rows of seats facing on to the arena, as in modern bull rings, absorbing the blood of slaughtered men and beasts. The first permanent amphitheater known to us is not in Rome but in Campania, the country which inherited the gladiatorial games from Eturia and passed them on to the Romans. (13:225) The largest and most famous of all such buildings was initiated by the Flavian dynasty. Opened by Titus in AD 80, this Colosseum is one of the most marvelous buildings in the world. Its massive overall measurements are 187 by 155 meters, of which the space for the arena itself comprises 86 by 54 meters. There was accommodation for perhaps 45,000 sitting spectators and at least 5,000 more willing to stand. Underneath the arena is a labyrinth of passages for stage effects, pens for wild beasts, storage rooms and the mechanism by which scenery and other apparatus were hoisted into the arena. The emperor's platform was at the center of one of the long sides, facing across to the portion of the auditorium reserved for magistrates and the holder of the games. There were also places for priests, who also attended these bloodthirsty sports. (13:227) The formula of the collosseum helped to mold renaissance styles. In the eight century they said that:
As long as it stands,
Rome will stand;
when it falls, Rome will fall;
when Rome falls, the world will fall
The colosseum has often been raided, but has never fallen. It has been made to serve many purposes, many of which are ironic. These have included sacred occasions, church services, and plays. Thus through all the depredation the colosseum has faced over the years inside and outside of the arena, this indestructible building still towers over the city today. (13:230)
The Gladiator in Society
The reputation of gladiators in the eyes of the public was curiously mixed. For one thing they were feared. Society was never able to forget for very long that the gladiators were a potential danger to society. So, of course were the masses of slaves in general, and that is why their crimes were so savagely punished, if one slaved murdered his master, the whole household had to die. But by training the gladiators they spared the rest of the slaves family, and forced him to fight for his life in front of the community he violated. Moreover their legal and moral position in the community was one of complete shame. When a gladiator was killed, his corpse was not permitted honorable to be buried, unless it was claimed by his family or a friend. (9:91)
However there is ample proof of the admiration and indeed excitement that the gladiators aroused. Gladiators became so ingrained in the Roman mind and soul that they believed in superstitions that resulted from munera. It was believed that the warm blood of a slaughtered gladiator would cure epilepsy. When newly married women, parted their hair with a gladiators spear, it brought good luck if this had belonged to a man mortally wounded in the arena. (8:276) Gladiators were also seen highly upon by women, graffiti at the Pompeii amphitheater reveal that members of the profession were loved with the passionate infatuation which teenage females have for pop singers today. Although gladiators lived relatively short lives it was possible to win liberation and retire on receipt of the symbolical wooden sword (rudis). It was also noted that some ex-gladiators moved upwards into respectable smart circles of local bourgeoisie's (9:96)
Opposition and Abolition
It was probably assumed that the munera would go on forever, and that nothing would stop their growth. With the rise of Christianity a religious presence lingered about such contests once again. The Roman ruling classes began to view these contest with a favorable eye. The excuse of encouragement to warlike toughness continued to be put forward until the eve of the Middle Ages, although it started to become lame and inhumane. Another purpose present in the minds of Rome's rulers was the desire that potentially unruly and dangerous city population should be amused and kept quiet. They should be given entertainment that they wanted, no matter how disgusting if might be.
The games gradually lost its original intentions and connections to the earlier funeral games. Once defenseless human beings are thrown to wild animals, the original purpose is lost, the purpose now is blood-thirsty spectators viewing inhumane, unjust executions. (2:87) The new religion however ended them for good. With the rise of emperor Constantine and Christianity came the fall of the gladiatorial spectacles. In AD 326, Constantine abolished gladiators' games altogether. He also stated that all criminals who would have in the past have been enrolled for the
games must in the future be condemned to forced labor in the mines instead. By the end of the fourth century, gladiatorial shows had disappeared from the Eastern Empire. (2:87)
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